Cordiano v. Metacon Gun Club, Inc.

Plaintiffs-Appellants appeal from the judgment of the United States District Court for the District of Connecticut (Arterton, J.), dismissing various claims under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (“RCRA”), 42 U.S.C. §§ 6901-6992k, and the Clean Water Act (“CWA”), 33 U.S.C. §§ 1251-1387. First, the district court dismissed Plaintiffs-Appellants’ permitting violation claim under 42 U.S.C. § 6925(a),- for failure to state a claim. Second, the district court granted Defendants-Appellees summary judgment on Plaintiffs-Appellants’ RCRA “open dumping” and “imminent and substantial endangerment” claims under 42 U.S.C. § 6945 and 42 U.S.C. § 6972(a)(1)(B). Finally, the district court granted Defendants-Appellees summary judgment on the claim that Defendants-Appellees are discharging pollutants into navigable waters without a permit in violation of the CWA, 33 U.S.C. § 1311(a). We affirm the decisions of the district court. With respect to the Plaintiffs-Appellants’ RCRA “imminent and substantial endangerment” claim and CWA permitting claim, however, we affirm on alternative grounds.

BACKGROUND

Plaintiffs-Appellants are SimsburyAvon Preservation Society, LLC, a group of homeowners who live near DefendantsAppellees’ shooting range, and Gregory Silpe, a member thereof (collectively referred to as “SAPS”). Defendants-Appellees Metacon Gun Club, Inc., and its members and guests (collectively referred to as “Metacon”) operate a shooting range that, according to SAPS, engages in the discharge and accumulation of lead munitions on Metacon’s site in violation of the RCRA and the CWA. The following factual background is drawn from the record assembled in connection with Metacon’s motion to dismiss and its two summary judgment motions.

I. The Metacon Site

Metacon has operated a private outdoor shooting range at its present location on 106 Nod Road in Simsbury, Connecticut since the mid-1960s. Metacon’s range is located on 137 acres of woods, meadows, wetlands and mountainside, and is situated on a flood plain of the Farmington River Valley. The site is bounded to the north by the Connecticut State Police pistol and rifle ranges, to the west by Nod Road and the Farmington River, to the south by a residence and a golf course, and to the east by a cliff that runs along the entire eastern property boundary.

SAPS provided evidence that, due to flooding at the site and overflow of the Farmington River, there is an occasional hydrologic connection between waters on the Metacon site and the Farmington River. SAPS also provided limited evidence of a continuous surface water connection between wetlands on the Metacon site and a body of water called Horseshoe Cove, a tributary that flows directly into the Farmington River. Metacon provided evidence to the contrary.

Metacon has a 100-yard shooting range at the back of which stands an engineered earthen berm for bullet containment. There is evidence indicating that wetlands on the Metacon site are located in close proximity to the berm and on unspecified portions of the shooting range. Metacon’s Environmental Stewardship Plan states that “[a] vernal pond is located directly in back of the backstop berm, and wetlands border the range immediately to the North and extend East beyond the berm for approximately 100 yards.” J.A. at 211. Further, the District Engineer for the Army Corps of Engineers provided Metacon with *203 a permit to expand its berm in 1990. The permit described the project location as “wetlands adjacent to the Farmington River.” Id. at 467.

II. Evidence of Lead Contamination at Metacon

SAPS provided evidence of lead accumulation on Metacon’s site based on a SAPS member’s non-specific observation of a “tremendous amount of spent ammunition on the ground,” id. at 596, and Metacon’s admission in a related state lawsuit that “[tjhousands of pounds of lead are deposited at the Site,” id. at 696. Meanwhile, Metacon provided evidence that, for at least the last ten years, it has conducted “regular clean-ups,” where members rake the range to collect materials such as spent casings and munitions. Id. at 503.

Several rounds of expert testing have been performed on Metacon’s site. In November 2003, the State of Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection (“CTDEP”) indicated that groundwater and surface water samples from the Meta-con site exceeded Connecticut’s Remediation Standard Regulation (“RSR”) protection criterion for lead in groundwater and surface water. However, given time constraints on the testing and the fact that standard sampling protocol was not followed, CTDEP indicated that the result could be “skewed[,] ... potentially resulting in higher concentrations of metals parameters.” Id. at 275. As a result, CTDEP requested that Metacon retain a consultant to resample the monitoring wells and surface water east of the berm using an appropriate sampling methodology, and report back to the Department.

Metacon hired Leggette, Brashears & Graham, Inc. (“LBG”), which provides professional groundwater and environmental engineering services, to conduct the requested testing. In an April 2004 report, LBG found that “the ground water beneath the shooting range has not been impacted by lead from the shooting range,” and that, with respect to wetland surface water, “the dissolved lead findings demonstrate that lead is not leaching out of the soil or surface water to contaminate the surface water.” Id. at 266. In sum, the sampling “demonstrated that the shoo[t]ing activities at the Metacon property [have] not resulted in lead contamination of the ground water or surface water at the Metacon site.” Id. at 267. Based on this report, the CTDEP concluded that “[a]ll the results indicate[] that lead was not detected or was present at concentrations in groundwater and surface water below action levels.” Id. at 262.

SAPS disputed these findings with a May 2005 report produced by its own expert, Advanced Environmental Interface, Inc. (“AEI”). Unlike the LBG study, which tested only groundwáter and wetland surface water samples, AEI tested soil samples and wetland sediment samples, as well as wetland surface water samples from the range and area surrounding the berm. With respect to soil samples, all samples collected from the backstop berm area, and all but one sample collected from locations between the firing line and berm, contained total lead concentrations that exceeded the CTDEP Direct Exposure Criterion (“DEC”) for residential sites, with several samples exceeding the CTDEP Significant Environmental Hazard (“SEH”) notification threshold. Some of these samples were subject to a leaching procedure, with results indicating that “the lead is leachable and may over time pose a threat to ground water quality.” Id. at 643. With respect to wetland sediment samples, the total lead concentration for all samples exceeded the CTDEP DEC for residential sites. As to the wetland surface water samples, the *204 report found different results in filtered and unfiltered samples. As to the unfiltered samples, the total lead concentrations exceeded the CTDEP chronic aquatic life criterion, with some samples exceeding the acute aquatic life criterion. However, the dissolved lead in the filtered samples was non-detect, meaning that the total lead concentrations in the unfiltered samples were likely “the result of either turbidity caused by suspended lead-bearing particles or colloidal matter.” Id. at 644. The AEI report does not specifically explain the relevance of the distinction between the results from the filtered and unfiltered wetland surface water samples.

The AEI report states that “[s]pent ammunition from typical firing range activities has contaminated various environmental media on the Metacon Gun Club site.” Id. at 645. Although the report notes that “firing-range-related contaminants on the site ... represent[ ] a potential exposure risk to both humans and wildlife,” it concludes that “[a] risk assessment utilizing the data obtained during this investigation would be necessary to evaluate the degree of risk to humans and wildlife.” Id. at 646.

It is undisputed that Metacon does not have a hazardous waste disposal permit under the RCRA, 42 U.S.C. § 6925, or a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (“NPDES”) permit, which is required for the discharge of pollutants under the CWA, 33 U.S.C. § 1311(a).

III. Metacon’s Environmental Stewardship Plan

On July 13, 2004, after this litigation commenced, Metacon adopted an Environmental Stewardship Plan. It provides for the annual raking of the range and screening of debris to recover bullets and fragments, as well as the use of “vacuuming machinery rather than hand-raking, and mechanical separation machinery in place of hand screening.” J.A. at 214. The Plan also provides for the mining of the berm in the year 2024.

DISCUSSION

I. Standards of Review

Since SAPS’s RCRA permit violation claim is before us on appeal from the grant of a motion to dismiss, with respect to that claim we “accept the facts alleged in the ... complaint as true.” Spool v. World Child Int’l Adoption Agency, 520 F.3d 178, 180 (2d Cir.2008). Our review is de novo. Id. at 183.

We review the district court’s grant of summary judgment on the remaining RCRA and CWA claims de novo, construing the evidence in the light most favorable to the nonmoving party. Jaramillo v. Weyerhaeuser Co., 536 F.3d 140, 145 (2d Cir.2008). Summary judgment is warranted only upon a showing by the movant “that there is no genuine issue as to any material fact and that the moving party is entitled to ... judgment as a matter of law.” Scholastic, Inc. v. Harris, 259 F.3d 73, 81 (2d Cir.2001) (quoting Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(c)). When the burden of proof at trial would fall on the nonmoving party, it ordinarily is sufficient for the movant to point to a lack of evidence to go to the trier of fact on an essential element of the nonmovant’s claim. Celotex Corp. v. Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 322-23, 106 S.Ct. 2548, 91 L.Ed.2d 265 (1986); see also Virgin Atl. Airways Ltd. v. British Airways PLC, 257 F.3d 256, 273 (2d Cir.2001). In that event, the nonmoving party must come forward with admissible evidence sufficient to raise a genuine issue of fact for trial in order to avoid summary judgment. Celotex, 477 U.S. at 322-23, 106 S.Ct. 2548.

II. RCRA

A. Statutory Background

RCRA is a “comprehensive environmental statute that governs the treatment, *205 storage, and disposal of solid and hazardous waste.” Meghrig v. KFC W., Inc., 516 U.S. 479, 483, 116 S.Ct. 1251, 134 L.Ed.2d 121 (1996). “RCRA’s primary purpose ... is to reduce the generation of hazardous waste and to ensure the proper treatment, storage, and disposal of that waste which is nonetheless generated, ‘so as to minimize the present and future threat to human health and the environment.’ ” Id. (quoting 42 U.S.C. § 6902(b)). The statute contains a citizen suit provision, 42 U.S.C. § 6972, “which permits private citizens to enforce its provisions in some circumstances.” Id. at 484,116 S.Ct. 1251.

SAPS pursues two claims under the RCRA citizen suit provision. First, 42 U.S.C. § 6972(a)(1)(A) permits a civil action against any person “who is alleged to be in violation of any permit, standard, regulation, condition, requirement, prohibition, or order which has become effective pursuant to this chapter.” In its permitting violation claim, SAPS alleges that Metacon is operating a facility for the disposal of hazardous waste without the requisite permit, in violation of 42 U.S.C. § 6925(a). Second, 42 U.S.C. § 6972(a)(1)(B) permits a civil action against any person “who has contributed or who is contributing to the past or present ... disposal of any solid or hazardous waste which may present an imminent and substantial endangerment to health or the environment.” SAPS claims that lead munitions are being disposed of on Metacon’s site and that this “may present an imminent and substantial endangerment,” triggering liability under 42 U.S.C. § 6972(a)(1)(B). 1

RCRA defines solid waste as “any garbage ... and other discarded material ... resulting from industrial, commercial, mining, and agricultural operations, and from community activities.” 42 U.S.C. § 6903(27) (emphasis added). In order for waste to be classified as hazardous under RCRA, “it must first qualify as a solid waste” pursuant to the statute. Conn. Coastal Fishermen’s Ass’n v. Remington Arms Co., 989 F.2d 1305, 1313 (2d Cir. 1993); see also 42 U.S.C. § 6903(5) (“The term ‘hazardous waste’ means a solid waste [that also has additional characteristics.]”). As a threshold matter, because SAPS’s permitting violation claim is based on the disposal of hazardous waste and its “imminent and substantial endangerment” claim requires the disposal of solid or hazardous waste, both claims require a finding that the spent munitions and their remains accumulating on Metacon’s site constitute a solid waste under the RCRA.

We have recognized that “RCRA regulations create a dichotomy in the definition of solid waste,” Conn. Coastal, 989 F.2d at 1314, so that a different definition applies to permitting violation claims than to claims of “imminent and substantial endangerment.” With regard to the latter, 40 C.F.R. § 261. 1(b)(2)(h) provides that the statutory definition of solid waste in 42 U.S.C. § 6903(27) (in relevant part, that solid waste is “any garbage ... and other *206 discarded material ... resulting from ... community activities”) “applies to ‘imminent hazard’ lawsuits brought by the United States under ... 42 U.S.C. § 6973.” Conn. Coastal, 989 F.2d at 1314. Because the language of the “imminent and substantial endangerment” citizen suit provision is “nearly identical” to the provision governing suit by the United States, id. at 1315, we have held that the “statutory definition of solid waste applies to citizen suits brought to abate imminent hazard to health or the environment,” Id.; of. 42 U.S.C. § 6972(a)(1)(B) (citizen suit provision); id. § 6973(a) (government suit provision).

The definition of solid waste in the RCRA regulations governing permitting violations and other related matters “is narrower than its statutory counterpart.” Conn. Coastal, 989 F.2d at 1314; see also Military Toxics Project v. EPA, 146 F.3d 948, 951 (D.C.Cir.1998) (“Although the EPA has narrowed the definition of solid waste for purposes of Subtitle C, the statute itself still provides the relevant definition for purposes of Subtitle G, which authorizes the Administrator (§ 7003) — or, indeed, ‘any person’ (§ 7002(a)(1)(B)) — to bring suit in order to force such action as may be necessary to abate ‘an imminent and substantial endangerment to health or the environment’ caused by solid waste.” (quoting 42 U.S.C. §§ 6972(a)(1)(B), 6973)); Owen Elec. Steel Co. of S. C., Inc. v. Broumer, 37 F.3d 146, 148 n. 3 (4th Cir. 1994) (“[T]he statutory definition of ‘solid waste’ ... is broader than the regulatory definition.”) (citing Conn. Coastal, 989 F.2d at 1315). As this Court said in Connecticut Coastal, these “regulations define solid waste as ‘any discarded material’ and further define discarded material as that which is ‘abandoned.’ Materials that are abandoned have been ‘disposed of.’ ” 989 F.2d at 1314 (citations omitted) (quoting 40 C.F.R. § 261.2). This narrower definition of solid waste “applies ... to wastes that also are hazardous for purposes of the regulations implementing Subtitle C of RCRA.” 40 C.F.R. § 261.1(b)(1). Subtitle C includes 42 U.S.C. § 6925(a), the hazardous waste permitting provision pursuant to which SAPS initiated its permitting claim.

Concluding that the “[d]ual definitions of solid waste are suggested by the structure and language of RCRA,” and that the regulations pi'omulgated by the Environmental Protection Agency (“EPA”) “reasonably interpret the statutory language,” we have accorded deference to the EPA’s dichotomous regulatory definition of solid waste pursuant to Chevron v. Natural Res. Def. Council, 467 U.S. 837, 104 S.Ct. 2778, 81 L.Ed.2d 694 (1984). Conn. Coastal, 989 F.2d at 1315. Accordingly, SAPS’s 42 U.S.C. § 6925(a) claim that Metacon is disposing of hazardous waste without a permit is governed by the narrower regulatory definition of solid waste, while SAPS’s 42 U.S.C. § 6972(a)(1)(B) “imminent and substantial endangerment” claim is governed by the broader statutory definition in 42 U.S.C. § 6903(27).

B. The Permitting Claim

SAPS claims that Metacon is operating a hazardous waste disposal facility without a permit in violation of 42 U.S.C. § 6925(a). Hazardous waste within the meaning of 42 U.S.C. § 6925(a) must meet the narrower regulatory definition of solid waste. Thus, to prevail, SAPS must allege and prove that the lead deposited on the Metacon site is a “discarded material,” 42 U.S.C. § 6903(27), which 40 C.F.R. § 261.2(a)(2)(i)(A) defines in relevant part as any material which is “abandoned” by being “[disposed of’ or by being “[a]ccumulated, stored, or treated (but not recycled) before or in lieu of being abandoned by being disposed of.” 40 C.F.R. § 261.2(b). SAPS argues that the mainte *207 nance of a shooting range where lead shot accumulates involves “discarded material” within the meaning of the RCRA permitting regulations.

The district court dismissed this claim pursuant to Fed.R.Civ.P. 12(b)(6). The court noted that' the EPA took the position in amicus briefs in both Connecticut Coastal and Long Island Soundkeeper Fund, Inc. v. N.Y. Athletic Club, No. 94 Civ. 0436(RPP), 1996 WL 131863 (S.D.N.Y. Mar.22, 1996), that the ordinary use of lead shot on a shooting range does not fall within the regulatory definition of solid waste because “[sjpent rounds of ammunition and target fragments are not ... ‘discarded material’ within the meaning of the regulation, because they have not been ‘abandoned,’ ... [but] come to rest on land ... as a result of their proper and expected use.” Simsbury-Avon Pres. Soc’y, LLC v. Metacon Gun Club, Inc., No. 3:04 Civ. 803(JBA), 2005 WL 1413183, at *5 (D.Conn. June 14, 2005). The court observed further that the EPA’s guidance manual, Best Management Practices for Lead at Outdoor Shooting Ranges, published in 2001, states that “[l]ead shot is not considered a hazardous waste subject to RCRA at the time it is discharged from a firearm because it is used for its intended purpose. As such, shooting lead shot (or bullets) is not regulated nor is a RCRA permit required to operate a shooting range.” Id. (quoting EPA Doc. No. EPA-902-B-01-001). The court concluded that the EPA’s interpretation of its regulations was reasonable and entitled to deference. Id. at *6.

In response to a request from this Court, the United States has submitted an amicus brief addressing whether lead shot discharged at a shooting range falls within the regulatory definition of solid waste set forth in 40 C.F.R. § 261.2. The United States maintains that the “EPA ... has consistently taken the position that the discharge of lead shot as part of the normal use of that product (i.e., being fired from a gun at a firing range) does not render the materials ‘discarded’ within the meaning of the RCRA subtitle C permitting regulations under 42 U.S.C. § 6925(a),” and further that the “EPA has repeatedly stated that its regulatory jurisdiction under RCRA does not apply to products that are applied to the land in the ordinary manner of use, because such products are being used, not ‘abandoned.’ ” United States Supp. Amicus Br. 5-6.

We conclude that this interpretation of 40 C.F.R. § 261.2 by the EPA is entitled to deference. See Auer v. Robbins, 519 U.S. 452, 462, 117 S.Ct. 905, 137 L.Ed.2d 79 (1997). The regulation is ambiguous as to whether lead shot discharged into a shooting range’s berm, or the range itself, constitutes “discarded material.” A person shooting a gun into a berm clearly knows that his spent ammunition will remain there unless removed. But has he therefore discarded it? Or has he instead merely used the ammunition in its intended manner, with the result that it is left on the land? The text of 40 C.F.R. § 261.2 provides no definitive answer.

In such circumstances we will generally defer to an agency’s interpretation of its own regulations, including one presented in an amicus brief, so long as the interpretation is not plainly erroneous or inconsistent with law. See Roth ex rel. Beacon Power Corp. v. Perseus, LLC, 522 F.3d 242, 247-48 (2d Cir.2008); see also Linares Huarcaya v. Mukasey, 550 F.3d 224, 229 (2nd Cir.2008) {“Auer deference ... is warranted only when the language of the regulation is ambiguous.” (internal quotation marks omitted)); Am. Fed’n of State, County & Mun: Employees v. Am. Int’l Group, Inc., 462 F.3d 121, 126 (2d Cir. 2006) (noting that “while agency interpre *208 tations that lack the force of law do not warrant deference when they interpret ambiguous statutes, they do normally warrant deference when they interpret ambiguous regulations ”); M. Fortunoff of Westburg Corp. v. Peerless Ins. Co., 432 F.3d 127, 139 (2d Cir.2005) (“To the extent that the amicus brief is interpreting the agency’s own regulations, as it is here, it is entitled to deference under Auer, 519 U.S. 452, 117 S.Ct. 905, 137 L.Ed.2d 79, as long as the regulation is ambiguous.”).

Here, the agency reasonably determined that lead shot put to its ordinary, intended use, i.e., discharged at a shooting range, is neither “material which is ... abandoned by being ... [disposed of,” nor “[accumulated ... before or in lieu of being abandoned by being disposed of.” 40 C.F.R. § 261.2(a)(2)®, (b). The EPA’s distinction between “abandonment” of lead shot, which falls within the regulatory definition of solid waste, and the normal, intended use of lead shot at a shooting range, which does not, is consistent with related RCRA regulations. For example, 40 C.F.R. § 261.2(e)(ii) provides that certain “commercial chemical products ... are not solid wastes if they are applied to the land and that is their ordinary manner of use.” Similarly, “[a] military munition is not a solid waste when ... [u]sed for its intended purpose,” while an “unused military munition is a solid waste when ... [t]he munition is abandoned by being disposed of.” 40 C.F.R. § 266.202(a), (b); see also Military Toxics Project, 146 F.3d at 952 (“The Military Munitions Rule provides that a military munition that lands on a firing range is not a solid waste and hence cannot be a hazardous waste for purposes of Subtitle C.”). More generally, the EPA’s position that materials put to their ordinary, intended use are not “abandoned” under the regulatory definition of solid waste, and hence are not subject to the permitting requirements of 42 U.S.C. § 6925(a), is consistent with the RCRA. As this Court has recognized, the words of the statute “contemplate that the EPA would refine and narrow the definition of solid waste,” Conn. Coastal, 989 F.2d at 1315, for the purpose of the more stringent regulatory treatment afforded to hazardous wastes in Subchapter III, where the permitting provisions are located. The EPA’s interpretation of its regulations — excluding from the more stringent permitting requirements of § 6925(a) those materials deposited on the land as part of their intended use — does just that.

We also note the consistency of the EPA’s interpretation of 40 C.F.R. § 261.2 over time. See Auer, 519 U.S. at 462, 117 S.Ct. 905 (observing that an agency’s interpretation of a regulation contained in a legal brief was entitled to deference where it was “in no sense a ‘post hoc rationalization’ advanced by an agency seeking to defend past agency action against attack” and there was no reason to suspect the interpretation did not reflect “the agency’s fair and considered judgment on the matter in question”). The EPA took the position that lead munitions discharged at a shooting range do not fall within the regulatory definition of solid waste in an amicus brief to this Court in Connecticut Coastal, 989 F.2d at 1315, decided in 1993, and again in an amicus brief to a district court in Long Island Soundkeeper Fund, Inc., 1996 WL 131863 at *8-9, decided in 1996. Furthermore, in the “Best Management Practices” manual the EPA makes clear that while spent lead shot left in the environment “is subject to the broader definition of solid waste” employed elsewhere in the RCRA, “[ljead shot is not considered a hazardous waste subject to RCRA at the time it is discharged from a firearm ... nor is a RCRA permit required to operate a shooting range.” J.A. at 129.

*209 SAPS argues that “[e]ven if it is determined that the act of shooting may not require a RCRA permit ... the maintenance of a site where shot accumulates should.” Appellants’ Br. 14. However, the EPA’s interpretation is that the nature of a material’s use, not the length of time it lies unrecovered, determines whether the regulatory definition of solid waste applies. See United States Supp. Amicus Br. 9 (“EPA has interpreted its regulations to mean that, when lead shot falls on a gun range as part of the normal use of the range, RCRA Section 6925(a) permit requirements do not arise by the mere passage of time.”). We defer to the EPA’s interpretation of 40 C.F.R. § 261.2. Because the lead on Metacon’s site was not abandoned but is the result of the regular, intended use of lead shot at a shooting range, Metacon was not required to obtain a permit under 42 U.S.C. § 6925(a). Accordingly, SAPS’s permitting claim, which is premised on such a requirement, was properly dismissed.

C. The Imminent and Substantial Endangerment Claim

SAPS’s next claim is that Metacon has disposed of solid waste, i.e., the lead that has been “discarded” on its site, 42 U.S.C. § 6903(27), that “may present an imminent and substantial endangerment to health or the environment.” 42 U.S.C. § 6972(a)(1)(B). The district court granted Metacon summary judgment on the ground that SAPS provided insufficient evidence that solid waste had been “discarded” on the Metacon site in light of Metacon’s uncontested evidence that spent casings and munitions are periodically removed. Simsbury-Avon Pres. Soc’y v. Metacon Gun Club, No. 3:04 Civ. 803(JBA), 2006 WL 2223946, at *9 (D.Conn. Aug.2, 2006).

We need not reach the issue of whether lead on Metacon’s site has been “discarded” within the meaning of the statutory definition of solid waste. See Conn. Coastal, 989 F.2d at 1316 (“RCRA regulations apply the broader statutory definition of solid waste to imminent hazard suits.”). Metacon argues that, assuming arguendo that lead is discarded on its site, the district court’s grant of summary judgment should be affirmed on the alternative ground that there is insufficient evidence that the discarded lead constitutes a “solid or hazardous waste which may present an imminent and substantial endangerment to health or the environment.” 42 U.S.C. § 6972(a)(1)(B). This standard cannot be met as a matter of law, says Metacon, because the AEI report on which SAPS relies concedes that the “degree of risk to humans and wildlife” cannot be assessed without further investigation, which SAPS has not undertaken. J.A. at 646. SAPS responds that the AEI report’s findings are sufficient to raise a material issue of fact as to whether the spent ammunition on the site “may” present an “imminent and substantial endangerment.” For the reasons stated here, we conclude that the AEI report does not raise a material issue of fact and that summary judgment was properly granted.

1. Imminent and Substantial Endangerment Standard

The RCRA citizen suit provision, 42 U.S.C. § 6972(a)(1)(B), provides a cause of action

against any person ... including any past or present generator, past or present transporter, or past or present owner or operator of a treatment, storage, or disposal facility, who has contributed or who is contributing to the past or present handling, storage, treatment, transportation, or disposal of any solid or hazardous waste which may present *210 an imminent and substantial endangerment to health or the environment.

42 U.S.C. § 6972(a)(1)(B). The RCRA defines “disposal” as the “discharge, deposit, ... or placing of any solid waste or hazardous waste into or on any land or water so that such solid waste or hazardous waste or any constituent thereof may enter the environment or be ... discharged into any waters.” 42 U.S.C. § 6903(3).

We have indicated that the “imminent and substantial endangerment” standard is a broad one:

Significantly, congress used the word “may” to preface the standard of liability: “present an imminent and substantial endangerment to health or the environment.]” This is expansive language, which is intended to confer upon the courts the authority to grant affirmative equitable relief to the extent necessary to eliminate any risk posed by toxic wastes.

Dague v. City of Burlington, 935 F.2d 1343, 1355 (2d Cir.1991) (internal quotation marks and citations omitted), judgment rev’d in part on other grounds, 505 U.S. 557, 112 S.Ct. 2638, 120 L.Ed.2d 449 (1992); see also Me. People’s Alliance v. Mallinckrodt, Inc., 471 F.3d 277, 288 (1st Cir.2006) (noting that “at least four of our sister circuits have construed [§ 6972(a)(1)(B)] expansively” and that “all four courts have emphasized the preeminence of the word ‘may’ in defining the degree of risk needed to support [§ 6972(a)(l)(B)’s] liability standard”). No matter how broadly read, however, the text of 42 U.S.C. § 6972 requires the presence of solid or hazardous waste that may present an “endangerment” that is “imminent” and “substantial.” Each of these terms benefits from evaluation.

In Dague, we stated that “imminency” requires a showing that a “risk of threatened harm is present.” Dague, 935 F.2d at 1356; see also Meghrig, 516 U.S. at 485-86, 116 S.Ct. 1251 (imminency requires “a threat which is present now, although the impact of the threat may not be felt until later”); Me. People’s Alliance, 471 F.3d at 296 (imminency requires a “reasonable prospect of future harm ... [that] is near-term”); Chem. Weapons Working Group, Inc. v. U.S. Dep’t of Def, 61 Fed.Appx. 556, 561 (10th Cir.2003) (“A vague possibility of future harm cannot satisfy [42 U.S.C. § 6972(a)(1)(B) ], which applies to dangers that are both imminent and substantial.”(internal quotation marks omitted)); Price v. U.S. Navy, 39 F.3d 1011, 1019 (9th Cir.1994) (“A finding of ‘imminency’ does not require a showing that actual harm will occur immediately so long as the risk of threatened harm is present.”). Nonetheless, liability under 42 U.S.C. § 6972(a)(1)(B) is not “limited to emergency-type situations,” and “[a] finding of ‘imminency’ does not require a showing that actual harm will occur immediately.” Dague, 935 F.2d at 1356. “An ‘imminent hazard’ may be declared at any point in a chain of events which may ultimately result in harm to the public.” Id. (internal quotation marks omitted).

As for the requirement that the endangerment at issue be “substantial” — a term for which the