376 S.E.2d 525 (1989)

Louise ETHERIDGE, et al., etc.
v.
MEDICAL CENTER HOSPITALS, et al.

Record No. 860194.

Supreme Court of Virginia.

January 13, 1989.

*526 Donald I. Marlin (Alan J. Konigsberg, New York City, Stephen C. Swain, Frederick T. Stant, Jr., Virginia Beach, Levy, Phillips & Konigsberg, New York City, Clark & Stant, P.C., Virginia Beach, on briefs), for appellants.

Stanley G. Barr, Jr., Thomas J. Harlan, Jr. (David J. Pierce, William M. Sexton, Michael F. Bergan, Philip N. Kabler, Kaufman & Canoles, P.C., Harlan, Knight, Dudley & Pincus, Norfolk, on briefs), for appellees.

Com. of Va. (Mary Sue Terry, Atty. Gen., Gail Starling Marshall, Deputy Atty. Gen., James T. Moore, III, Sr. Asst. Atty. Gen., William L. Thurston, Asst. Atty. Gen., Gregory E. Lucyk, Asst. Atty. Gen., on brief), amici curiae, for appellees.

Medical Society of Virginia (Allen C. Goolsby, III, Patricia M. Schwarzschild, W. Jeffrey Edwards, Robert Acosta-Lewis, Hunton & Williams, Richmond, on brief), amici curiae, for appellees.

Present: CARRICO, C.J., POFF,^[*] COMPTON, STEPHENSON, RUSSELL, THOMAS, and WHITING, JJ.

STEPHENSON, Justice.

The principal issue in this appeal is whether Code § 8.01-581.15, which limits the amount of recoverable damages in a medical malpractice action, violates either the Federal or Virginia Constitution. Two other issues involve the interpretation of statutes.

I

Louise Etheridge and Larry Dodd, co-committees of the estate of Richie Lee Wilson (Wilson), sued Medical Center Hospitals (the hospital) and Donald Bedell Gordon, executor of the estate of Clarence B. Trower, Jr., deceased (Trower), alleging that the hospital and Trower were liable, jointly and severally, for damages Wilson sustained as a result of their medical malpractice. Evidence at trial revealed that, prior to her injuries, Wilson, a 35-year-old mother of three children, was a normal, healthy woman. On May 6, 1980, however, Wilson underwent surgery at the hospital to restore a deteriorating jaw bone. The surgery consisted of the removal of five-inch-long portions of two ribs by Trower, a general surgeon, and the grafting of the reshaped rib bone to Wilson's jaw by an oral surgeon. The jury found that both Trower and the hospital were negligent and that their negligence proximately caused Wilson's injuries.

*527 Wilson's injuries are severe and permanent. She is brain damaged with limited memory and intelligence. She is paralyzed on her left side, confined to a wheelchair, and unable to care for herself or her children.

At the time of trial, Wilson had expended more than $300,000 for care and treatment. She will incur expenses for her care the remainder of her life. Her life expectancy is 39.9 years. Wilson, a licensed practical nurse, earned almost $10,000 in 1979, the last full year she worked. She contends that she proved an economic loss "in excess of $1.9 million."

The jury returned a verdict for $2,750,-000 against both defendants. The trial court, applying the recovery limit prescribed in Code § 8.01-581.15 (1977 Repl. Vol.), reduced the verdict to $750,000 and entered judgment in that amount. Wilson appeals.

At all times pertinent to this case, Code § 8.01-581.15 provided that in an action for malpractice against a health care provider, "the total amount recoverable for any injury... shall not exceed seven hundred fifty thousand dollars."^[1] Wilson challenges the validity of this legislation on multiple grounds. She contends that Code § 8.01-581.15 violates the Virginia Constitution's due process guarantee, jury trial guarantee, separation of powers doctrine, prohibitions against special legislation, and equal protection guarantee, as well as certain parallel provisions of the Federal Constitution.

II

On February 6, 1975, the General Assembly adopted House Joint Resolution No. 174, authorizing a study and report on malpractice insurance premiums for physicians. H.R.Res. 174, Va.Gen.Assem. (1975). The study was conducted by the State Corporation Commission's Bureau of Insurance.

Upon completion of its study in November 1975, the Bureau of Insurance submitted its report to the General Assembly. The report showed that since 1960 medical malpractice insurance rates had increased nationwide more than 1000 percent. The increase resulted from the number and severity of medical malpractice claims. Significantly, the report stated that 90 percent of all medical malpractice claims ever pursued originated after 1965. Bureau of Insurance, State Corporation Commission, Medical Malpractice Insurance in Virginia, the Scope and Severity of the Problem and Alternative Solutions. The information in the report was incorporated into Senate Document No. 29, entitled Interim Report of the Commission to Study the Costs and Administration of Health Care Services to the Governor and the General Assembly of Virginia.

Based upon its study, the General Assembly found that the increase in medical malpractice claims was directly affecting the premium cost for, and the availability of, medical malpractice insurance. Without such insurance, health care providers could not be expected to continue providing medical care for the Commonwealth's citizens. Because of this threat to medical care services, the General Assembly, in 1976, enacted the Virginia Medical Malpractice Act (the Act). Acts 1976, c. 611.

The need and reasons for the legislation are stated in the Preamble to the Act:

Whereas, the General Assembly has determined that it is becoming increasingly difficult for health care providers of the Commonwealth to obtain medical malpractice insurance with limits at affordable rates in excess of $750,000; and

Whereas, the difficulty, cost and potential unavailability of such insurance has caused health care providers to cease providing services or to retire prematurely and has become a substantial impairment to health care providers entering into practice in the Commonwealth and reduces or will tend to reduce the number *528 of young people interested in or willing to enter health care careers; and

Whereas, these factors constitute a significant problem adversely affecting the public health, safety and welfare which necessitates the imposition of a limitation on the liability of health care providers in tort actions commonly referred to as medical malpractice cases[.]

The General Assembly concluded, therefore, that escalating costs of medical malpractice insurance and the availability of such insurance were substantial problems adversely affecting the health, safety, and welfare of Virginia's citizens. Id. Thus, the General Assembly made a judgment that passage of the Act, including Code § 8.01-581.15, was an appropriate means of addressing the problem. Code § 8.01-581.15 (originally Code § 8-654.8), as originally enacted and in effect at all times pertinent to the present case, provided as follows:

In any verdict returned against a health care provider in an action for malpractice where the act or acts of malpractice occurred on or after April one, nineteen hundred seventy-seven, which is tried by a jury or in any judgment entered against a health care provider in such an action which is tried without a jury, the total amount recoverable for any injury to, or death of, a patient shall not exceed seven hundred fifty thousand dollars.

III

A

It is firmly established that all actions of the General Assembly are presumed to be constitutional. Riddleberger v. Chesapeake Railway, 229 Va. 213, 215, 327 S.E. 2d 663, 664 (1985); Waterman's Assoc. v. Seafood, Inc., 227 Va. 101, 110, 314 S.E.2d 159, 164 (1984); Blue Cross v. Commonwealth, 221 Va. 349, 358, 269 S.E.2d 827, 832 (1980); Peery v. Board of Funeral Directors, 203 Va. 161, 165, 123 S.E.2d 94, 97 (1961); Dean v. Paolicelli, 194 Va. 219, 227, 72 S.E.2d 506, 511 (1952); Ex Parte Settle, 114 Va. 715, 719, 77 S.E. 496, 497 (1913). Therefore, the party assailing the legislation has the burden of proving that it is unconstitutional, Riddleberger, 229 Va. at 215, 327 S.E.2d at 664, and if a reasonable doubt exists as to a statute's constitutionality, the doubt must be resolved in favor of its validity, Blue Cross, 221 Va. at 358, 269 S.E.2d at 832. Indeed, because "[a] judgment as to the wisdom and propriety of a statute is within the legislative prerogative," id., courts will declare legislation invalid only when it is "plainly repugnant to some provision of the state or federal constitution," id. Thus, Wilson's multiple claims of unconstitutionality must be examined in the light of these long-standing principles.

B

One of Wilson's primary contentions is that Code § 8.01-581.15 violates her right under the Virginia Constitution to a trial by jury. She asserts that "legislation may not override the findings of a jury by prescribing an absolute limit upon the amount of damages, irrespective of the facts and the jury verdict."

Article I, § 11, of the Constitution of Virginia provides, inter alia, "[t]hat in controversies respecting property, and in suits between man and man, trial by jury is preferable to any other, and ought to be held sacred." It is "well settled that ... the State ... Constitution [neither] guarantees [nor] preserves the right of trial by jury except in those cases where it existed when" the Constitution was adopted. Bowman v. Va. State Entomologist, 128 Va. 351, 372, 105 S.E. 141, 148 (1920). Accord Pillow v. Southwest Va. Imp. Co., 92 Va. 144, 149, 23 S.E. 32, 33 (1895). See also 1 A. Howard, Commentaries on the Constitution of Virginia, at 246-48 (1974). Therefore, in determining whether the cap prescribed in Code § 8.01-581.15 violates the jury trial guarantee, "[w]e must look to the law as it existed when the Constitution was adopted and as it has been uniformly construed since that time." Forbes & Co. v. So. Cotton Oil Co., 130 Va. 245, 260, 108 S.E. 15, 20 (1921).

*529 When the Virginia Constitution first was adopted in 1776, a jury's role was defined by three procedures: the "case stated," the "demurrer to the evidence," and the "special verdict." Henderson, The Background of the Seventh Amendment, 80 Harv.L. Rev. 289, 319 (1966) (Henderson). The "case stated" procedure best portrays the time-honored distinction between the roles of a court and a jury in a judicial proceeding.

The "case stated" was a trial device employed to bypass the jury when only undisputed facts remained in a case. When this occurred, the jury's role was reduced to a mere formality. Henderson at 305. During a trial that resulted in a "case stated," the jury remained to resolve factual issues that arose, but the jury was not empowered to give specific legal effect to its decisions. Id. at 305-06. The "case stated" procedure, therefore, demonstrates that, at the time the Constitution was adopted, the jury's sole function was to resolve disputed facts.

The resolution of disputed facts continues to be a jury's sole function. "The province of the jury is to settle questions of fact, and when the facts are ascertained the law determines the rights of the parties." Forbes, 130 Va. at 260, 108 S.E. at 20. Thus, the Virginia Constitution guarantees only that a jury will resolve disputed facts. Id.

Without question, the jury's fact-finding function extends to the assessment of damages. Stanardsville Vol. Fire Co. v. Berry, 229 Va. 578, 583, 331 S.E.2d 466, 469-70 (1985); O'Brien v. Snow, 215 Va. 403, 405, 210 S.E.2d 165, 167 (1974). Once the jury has ascertained the facts and assessed the damages, however, the constitutional mandate is satisfied. Forbes, 130 Va. at 260-61, 108 S.E. at 20. Thereafter, it is the duty of the court to apply the law to the facts. Id. at 265-67, 108 S.E. at 22.

The limitation on medical malpractice recoveries contained in Code § 8.01-581.15 does nothing more than establish the outer limits of a remedy provided by the General Assembly. A remedy is a matter of law, not a matter of fact. See Phipps, Adm'r v. Sutherland, 201 Va. 448, 452, 111 S.E.2d 422, 425 (1959); Duffy v. Hartsock, 187 Va. 406, 416, 46 S.E.2d 570, 574 (1948). A trial court applies the remedy's limitation only after the jury has fulfilled its fact-finding function. Thus, Code § 8.01-581.15 does not infringe upon the right to a jury trial because the section does not apply until after a jury has completed its assigned function in the judicial process.

More importantly, as previously stated, the jury trial guarantee secures no rights other than those that existed at common law. Significantly, the common law never recognized a right to a full recovery in tort. See Phipps, 201 Va. at 452, 111 S.E.2d at 425; see also Duke Power Co. v. Carolina Environmental Study Group, Inc., 438 U.S. 59, 88-89 n. 32, 98 S.Ct. 2620, 2638 n. 32, 57 L.Ed.2d 595 (1978) (compiling cases). Thus, although a party has the right to have a jury assess his damages, he has no right to have a jury dictate through an award the legal consequences of its assessment. For this reason, too, the limited recovery set forth in Code § 8.01-581.15 effects no impingement upon the right to a jury trial.

In the present case, the jury resolved the disputed facts and assessed the damages. Wilson, therefore, was accorded a jury trial as guaranteed by the Virginia Constitution. Once the jury had determined the facts, the trial court applied the law and reduced the verdict in compliance with the cap prescribed by the General Assembly in Code § 8.01-581.15. By merely applying the law to the facts, the court fulfilled its obligation. Accordingly, the remedy prescribed by the General Assembly did not infringe upon Wilson's right to a jury.

C

Wilson also contends that Code § 8.01-581.15 violates the constitutional guarantee of due process. The due process clauses of the Federal and Virginia Constitutions provide that no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law. U.S. Const. amend. *530 XIV, § 1; Va. Const. art. I, § 11. Both procedural and substantive rights are protected by the due process clauses.

Procedural due process guarantees a litigant the right to reasonable notice and a meaningful opportunity to be heard. Parratt v. Taylor, 451 U.S. 527, 540, 101 S.Ct. 1908, 1915, 68 L.Ed.2d 420 (1981); Com'sion v. Hampton Rds. Oyster Co., 109 Va. 565, 585, 64 S.E. 1041, 1048 (1909); Ward Co. v. Henderson White Co., 107 Va. 626, 630, 59 S.E. 476, 478 (1907). The procedural due process guarantee does not create constitutionally-protected interests; the purpose of the guarantee is to provide procedural safeguards against a government's arbitrary deprivation of certain interests. Leis v. Flynt, 439 U.S. 438, 441, 99 S.Ct. 698, 700, 58 L.Ed.2d 717 (1979). See also Smith v. Organization of Foster Families for Equality and Reform, 431 U.S. 816, 840-41, 97 S.Ct. 2094, 2107-08, 53 L.Ed.2d 14 (1977).

By comparison, substantive due process tests the reasonableness of a statute vis-a-vis the legislature's power to enact the law. Ordinarily, substantive due process is satisfied if the legislation has a "reasonable relation to a proper purpose and [is] neither arbitrary nor discriminatory." Duke v. County of Pulaski, 219 Va. 428, 437-38, 247 S.E.2d 824, 829 (1978). See also Board of Supervisors v. State Milk Comm., 191 Va. 1, 8-9, 60 S.E.2d 35, 39, appeal dismissed, 340 U.S. 881, 71 S.Ct. 198, 95 L.Ed. 640 (1950); Finney v. Hawkins, 189 Va. 878, 886, 54 S.E.2d 872, 876 (1949); Stickley v. Givens, 176 Va. 548, 560, 11 S.E.2d 631, 637 (1940). If legislation withstands this so-called "rational basis" test, due process is not violated.

When, on the other hand, legislation affects a "fundamental right," the constitutionality of the enactment will be judged according to the "strict scrutiny" test, i.e., the law must be necessary to promote a compelling or overriding governmental interest. San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1, 18, 93 S.Ct. 1278, 1288, 36 L.Ed.2d 16 (1973). Those interests that have been recognized as "fundamental" include the right to free speech, NAACP v. Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 U.S. 449, 78 S.Ct. 1163, 2 L.Ed.2d 1488 (1958); the right to vote, Harper v. Virginia Bd. of Elections, 383 U.S. 663, 86 S.Ct. 1079, 16 L.Ed.2d 169 (1966); the right to interstate travel, Shapiro v. Thompson, 394 U.S. 618, 89 S.Ct. 1322, 22 L.Ed.2d 600 (1969); the right to fairness in the criminal process, Mayer v. Chicago, 404 U.S. 189, 92 S.Ct. 410, 30 L.Ed.2d 372 (1971); the right to marry, Zablocki v. Redhail, 434 U.S. 374, 98 S.Ct. 673, 54 L.Ed.2d 618 (1978); and the right to fairness in procedures concerning governmental deprivation of life, liberty, or property, Goldberg v. Kelly, 397 U.S. 254, 90 S.Ct. 1011, 25 L.Ed.2d 287 (1970).

Occasionally employed in connection with claims of due process violations is the "irrebuttable presumption" line of analysis. Generally, if a government presumes facts that leave no room for rebuttal and uses that presumption to deny a person a constitutional right, due process will be violated. See Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur, 414 U.S. 632, 94 S.Ct. 791, 39 L.Ed.2d 52 (1974). If the right or status affected by the irrebuttable presumption is constitutionally protected, the presumed facts must be "necessarily or universally true." Vlandis v. Kline, 412 U.S. 441, 452, 93 S.Ct. 2230, 2236, 37 L.Ed.2d 63 (1973). Conversely, if the right or classification enjoys no constitutionally-protected status, the presumption will be upheld if it is rationally related to a legitimate legislative goal. Weinberger v. Salfi, 422 U.S. 749, 771-72, 95 S.Ct. 2457, 2469-70, 45 L.Ed.2d 522 (1975).

In this appeal, Wilson bases her claim of a due process violation solely upon the irrebuttable presumption rationale. She contends that she has been "deprived of an effective opportunity to be heard, since [Code § 8.01-581.15] purports to preordain the result of the hearing." Thus, she asserts, the statute "creates a conclusive presumption that no plaintiff's damages exceed $750,000." Wilson relies upon LaFleur, 414 U.S. 632, 94 S.Ct. 791, to support *531 her claim.^[2]

In LaFleur, a Board of Education had established rules that required pregnant teachers to take a leave of absence at the end of the fourth or fifth month of pregnancy and prohibited their return to work until three months after childbirth, irrespective of whether the teacher was actually able to perform her job. The Supreme Court stated that the mandatory leave rules "directly affect `one of the basic civil rights of man,'" id. at 640, 94 S.Ct. at 796, (quoting Skinner v. Oklahoma, 316 U.S. 535, 541, 62 S.Ct. 1110, 1113, 86 L.Ed. 1655 (1942)), i.e., the right to bear or beget children, id. Therefore, the Court stated, "the Fourteenth Amendment requires that such rules must not needlessly, arbitrarily, or capriciously impinge upon this vital area of a teacher's constitutional liberty." Id. The Supreme Court concluded that the mandatory leave regulations violated the Fourteenth Amendment because they "employ[ed] irrebuttable presumptions that unduly penalize a female teacher for deciding to bear a child." Id. 414 U.S. at 648, 94 S.Ct. at 800.

In reaching its conclusion, the Court said "the provisions amount to a conclusive presumption that every pregnant teacher who reaches the fifth or sixth month of pregnancy is physically incapable of continuing" at her job. Id. at 644, 94 S.Ct. at 798. The Court noted that "freedom of personal choice in matters of marriage and family life is one of the liberties protected by the Due Process Clause." Id. at 639, 94 S.Ct. at 796. The Court held that the Constitution requires a more individualized approach to determining whether a teacher is physically capable of continuing her employment during pregnancy and resuming her duties after childbirth. Id. at 645, 94 S.Ct. at 798-99.

In the present case, Wilson has not been denied reasonable notice and a meaningful opportunity to be heard. Code § 8.01-581.15 has no effect upon Wilson's right to have a jury or court render an individual decision based upon the merits of her case. Thus, unlike the administratively-mandated maternity leave rule deemed invalid in LaFleur, Code § 8.01-581.15 creates no presumptions whatsoever regarding the individual merits of Wilson's medical malpractice claim. The section merely affects the parameters of the remedy available to Wilson after the merits of her claim have been decided. We hold, therefore, that Wilson's constitutional guarantee of procedural due process has not been violated.^[3]

The effect of Code § 8.01-581.15 on the remedy available to Wilson likewise is not violative of any substantive due process right. As discussed under Section III B, supra, a party has no fundamental right to a particular remedy or a full recovery in tort. A statutory limitation on recovery is simply an economic regulation, which is entitled to wide judicial deference. Duke Power Co., 438 U.S. at 83, 98 S.Ct. at 2635. Because Code § 8.01-581.15 is such a regulation and infringes upon no fundamental right, the section must be upheld if it is reasonably related to a legitimate governmental purpose.

In Part II of this opinion, we set forth the General Assembly's findings for limiting the amount of recoveries in medical malpractice cases. The purpose of Code § 8.01-581.15 — to maintain adequate health care services in this Commonwealth — bears a reasonable relation to the legislative cap — ensuring that health care providers can obtain affordable medical malpractice insurance. We hold, therefore, that substantive due process has not been violated.

D

Wilson further contends that Code § 8.01-581.15 violates the doctrine of separation *532 of powers set forth in Article III, § 1 of the Virginia Constitution. That constitutional provision states, inter alia, that "[t]he legislative, executive, and judicial departments shall be separate and distinct, so that none exercise the powers properly belonging to the others." Wilson not only claims that Code § 8.01-581.15 is facially unconstitutional, but also asserts that it "interferes with the power of the court to enter and enforce its own judgments" and "seeks to circumscribe the discretion and power of judicial officers," converting them into "ministerial agents of the legislative department."

The powers of the Commonwealth's courts are set forth in Article VI, § 1 of the Constitution. That section provides, inter alia, that subject to the provisions relating to the powers and jurisdiction of this Court, "the General Assembly shall have the power to determine the original and appellate jurisdiction of the courts of the Commonwealth." The legislative powers conferred upon the General Assembly are set forth in Article IV, § 14 of the Constitution, which states that the General Assembly's authority "shall extend to all subjects of legislation not herein forbidden or restricted."

One area in which the General Assembly's authority has not been forbidden or restricted is the common law. "The common and statute law in force at the time this revised Constitution goes into effect, so far as not in conflict therewith, shall remain in force until they expire by their own limitation or are altered or repealed by the General Assembly." Va. Const., Art. XII, § 3 (emphasis added). Indeed, "[t]here is nothing in the common law that is not subject to repeal by the Legislature unless it has been reenacted in some constitutional provision." Howell v. Commonwealth, 187 Va. 34, 41, 46 S.E.2d 37, 40 (1948). More to the point, the legislature has the power to provide, modify, or repeal a remedy. Phipps, 201 Va. at 452, 111 S.E.2d at 425. Accord Duke Power Co., 438 U.S. at 88-89 n. 32, 98 S.Ct. at 2638 n. 32.

Virginia alone can prescribe the jurisdiction of her own courts. She can mould her remedies as she pleases.... She may be bound to provide some remedy for wrong, but she is the exclusive and sovereign judge of the form of the remedy.

The Richmond, & c. Railroad Co. v. The Louisa Railroad Co., 54 U.S. (13 How.) 71, 77,