368 S.C. 444 (2006) 629 S.E.2d 653

Linda ERICKSON, Appellant,
v.
JONES STREET PUBLISHERS, LLC, Respondent.

No. 26133.

Supreme Court of South Carolina.

Heard January 19, 2006. Decided April 10, 2006. Rehearing Denied May 24, 2006.

*454 Russell S. Stemke, of Island Law Offices, of Isle of Palms, for Appellant.

John J. Kerr, of Buist, Moore, Smythe, & McGee, P.A., of Charleston, for Respondent.

Justice BURNETT:

Linda Erickson (Appellant) appeals the dismissal of her causes of action for defamation, invasion of privacy, and negligence against Jones Street Publishers, LLC (Newspaper). We affirm in part, reverse in part, and remand for further proceedings.

*455 FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND

Newspaper publishes the Charleston City Paper, a free weekly newspaper with a circulation of about 30,000. Newspaper on January 19, 2000, published a front-page news story titled "In A Child's Best Interest: Is the guardian ad litem program giving children a voice?" In a promotional teaser in the table of contents on page three, Newspaper stated:

Protecting the Children

The Guardian Ad Litem program has come under fire recently for a series of transgressions. One high profile case has a Guardian reportedly becoming romantically involved with the father of a child. Critics claim volunteers with a lack of training and professional expertise have too much authority. How did this happen, and what is being done to remedy the situation?

In introductory paragraphs preceding the main body of the article, Newspaper stated:

Every child in the judicial system needs to have a voice. Parents have the benefit of experience, age, and lawyers to make their case. But what of a 7-year-old boy whose family is crumbling right in front of him and only sees himself to blame—who is to speak for him?

In South Carolina, they are called Guardian Ad Litems (GALs). In a perfect world, they provide an objective perspective for what's best for the child—mom's house, dad's house, neither. But what happens if their objectivity is compromised? What if, while carrying out their duties, they step across the line, like sleeping with the client's father?

It's already happened, and the result is a public effort to abolish half of the GAL system and radically modify the other half.

The article then began with a subsection titled "Whom to Believe?" In that first subsection, Newspaper recounted the claims of Pat Beal, a Summerville grandmother who said her daughter and two grandchildren had moved into her home to escape the daughter's physically abusive husband. Pat Beal said her "then six-year-old granddaughter began to complain of pain in her `private area—vaginal pain'" and that "her granddaughter would cry out `No, Daddy' in her dreams." *456 The family took the granddaughter to doctors to investigate "possible molestations," as well as to a lawyer who ultimately contacted the Department of Social Services, according to the article.

In the article, Pat Beal stated that "the [guardian] assigned to the case did not do a thorough job of interviewing the family and did not even talk to the granddaughter"; the guardian prevented an arrangement between the parents in which the mother (Pat Beal's daughter) would get full custody of the children; the guardian "manipulated the judge into barring [Pat Beal] from contacting her granddaughter without supervision"; and the guardian, in the final divorce decree, "had it written that she [Pat Beal] could have no contact with either of her minor grandchildren." Pat Beal further stated in the article that she "became incensed when a second psychologist said that she had `coached' her granddaughter into alleging sexual abuse at the hands of her father"; that she and her husband had "spent $64,000 fighting the decree in court, and were eventually successful"; and that she had joined a court reform movement begun by those who have been through "equally harrowing experiences with custody and abuse battles."

The article did not name the guardian who represented Pat Beal's granddaughter. Appellant testified there were only a handful of private, non-lawyer guardians in Dorchester County at the time. Two local lawyers testified they and others involved in the Dorchester County family court system were familiar with the "Beal case," and knew Appellant was the guardian who had worked on it. Furthermore, it apparently is undisputed Appellant was sufficiently identified in the article because Newspaper did not attempt to defend on that ground.^[1]

Appellant alleged the teaser, introductory paragraphs, and "Whom to Believe" subsection constituted defamation by libel. Appellant alleged and testified the false and defamatory statements included the charge she failed to properly investigate *457 the case or speak with the child she represented, that she improperly blocked and tried to prevent the mother from getting full custody of the children, that she manipulated a family court judge, that she caused a court order to be written preventing Pat Beal from having visitation with her granddaughter, and that she had a sexual relationship with the father of a child she represented.

Appellant presented evidence that the child's "vaginal pain" was actually caused by pinworms. Investigations by Appellant, DSS, physicians, and a psychologist revealed no evidence William Litchfield had sexually abused his daughter. Appellant testified she concluded Pat Beal had coached her granddaughter to falsely accuse her father of sexual molestation in order to gain an advantage in the divorce and custody battle. A psychologist reached the same conclusion. Appellant testified the child, unprompted, said she "told the doctor that my daddy did something that he really didn't. My nana [Pat Beal] told me to because she wanted me to—my nana asked me to tell the doctor that my daddy hurt me and he really didn't. And my mama and grandpa are afraid we're going to get in trouble."

The family court judge in the Litchfield divorce decree ordered the parties to deny access or visitation of Pat Beal with the grandchildren until she "has completed a course of counseling which addresses the issues of coaching and interfering with the relationship of these parents and children." The order, the result of a settlement between the parties, was not appealed and Pat Beal's visitation rights were restored after she completed the required counseling.

Appellant exemplified something of a Horatio Alger tale. She testified she had a somewhat troubled childhood and adolescence, growing up in New York with an alcoholic father. She left home, dropped out of school at the age of sixteen, and had a failed relationship with a heroin addict. She later met and married and the couple had two children, moving to Charleston after her husband joined the Air Force. Appellant's husband was killed in a car wreck when she was twenty-five years old. Appellant passed tests of General Educational Development, obtaining her "GED." She then went to college for eight years while working part-time jobs and taking care *458 of her children, eventually obtaining a bachelor's degree in sociology. Appellant ultimately obtained a master's degree in counseling and, finally, realizing part of her dream, became a licensed professional counselor able to work with children and families.

Appellant had planned to begin her own counseling business in Dorchester County, but Appellant and two lawyers testified her reputation and chance to start a counseling business were ruined by the defamatory newspaper article. No lawyer needing a guardian ad litem or family counselor could take a chance on hiring such a controversial person because it would simply bring too many extraneous issues and problems into a case.

Appellant testified she worked from her home as a guardian ad litem and counselor in divorce and other family-related cases, and she considered her role to be a private, confidential one involving very personal matters. She understood that legislators, family court officials, and others at the time were publicly debating potential changes in the guardian system, but she did not speak out publicly on the topic.

Newspaper defended the case primarily on the grounds the information in the article was true and accurate, i.e., Appellant had not properly investigated the case, had reached erroneous conclusions and recommendations too summarily, and had manipulated the family court. The author of the article, Bill Davis, testified he and Newspaper handled the story carefully and appropriately. Davis testified he tried to contact Appellant before publishing it even though none of his notes contained her telephone number. He did not try to contact attorneys involved in the Beal case. Davis conceded his only source for the "Whom to Believe" subsection was a fifteen-to thirty-minute telephone conversation with Pat Beal. Davis admitted he could have obtained the Litchfields' publicly recorded divorce decree, which refuted or at least called some of Pat Beal's claims into question.^[2] In addition, Newspaper *459 contended Appellant was a public figure or public official required to prove constitutional actual malice, which she was unable to do, in order to prevail in the lawsuit.

The trial initially progressed in the usual manner. It appears that, by the third day, Wednesday, the trial judge expressed concern about the potential length of the trial.^[3] Newspaper suggested the evidence initially should be limited to issues of Appellant's status and whether she had presented sufficient evidence of actual malice to submit the case to the jury. The judge, in turn, suggested the parties agree to bifurcate the case between liability and damages, an idea Appellant initially resisted. By Friday morning, the decision to bifurcate the case apparently had been agreed upon and was understood by the parties, as the judge directed Appellant, "I don't want you to put on any damage witnesses right now. We're only talking about liability."^[4]

On Friday afternoon, the trial judge explained to the parties he would instruct the jury after Appellant rested her case on liability and the parties presented closing arguments. He would then hear arguments and rule on Newspaper's directed verdict motion on whether Appellant was a private figure, public figure, or public official while the jury deliberated. The judge subsequently explained to the jury that he had "limited the amount of testimony that you have heard to only questions that involve the issue of liability." The jury would be given a *460 special verdict form after hearing closing arguments and instructions on the law. Neither party objected to the procedure. Newspaper did not attempt to offer any witnesses or evidence during the liability phase of the trial.

The parties and judge discussed the jury charges and special verdict form at length. Both parties made closing arguments to the jury, focusing only on whether the article was false and defamatory, and whether Appellant had shown Newspaper acted negligently or with actual malice.

The judge instructed the jury it was only to determine the issue of liability, not damages, and charged the jury on the elements of a defamation action. The judge told the jury not to consider the statement regarding a guardian who had a sexual relationship with the father of a child she represented. The judge earlier had ruled that statement did not have a defamatory meaning with regard to Appellant because the article clearly identified another guardian accused of that act. Because he had not yet ruled on the issue of Appellant's status, the judge charged the jury on both private figure and negligence law, and the concepts of public figure, public official, and constitutional actual malice. The judge explained the special verdict form in detail to the jury.

While the jury was out, the judge heard arguments on Newspaper's directed verdict motion that Appellant was a public figure or public official who must prove Newspaper acted with actual malice, a burden she had failed to meet. The judge did not rule on the motion before the jury returned with its verdict.

The special verdict form approved by both parties posed four yes/no questions: (1) whether Appellant had proven by a preponderance of the evidence that Newspaper published a statement about Appellant that was false; (2) whether Appellant had proven by a preponderance that the false statement about Appellant was defamatory; (3) whether Appellant had proven by a preponderance that Newspaper's publication of a false and defamatory statement about Appellant was negligent; and (4) whether Appellant had proven by clear and convincing evidence that Newspaper acted with actual malice *461 in publishing a false and defamatory statement about Appellant.^[5] The jury answered "yes" to all four questions.

The trial judge told jurors they would have to return the following week to consider evidence of Appellant's damages, and sent them out to discuss when they would prefer to return. The judge then denied Newspaper's directed verdict motion, ruling Appellant was a private figure required to prove negligence to recover damages in her defamation action.

At this point the case took an unusual procedural turn. Newspaper moved for a mistrial because the judge had told jurors they would return only to determine damages, but Newspaper had not yet presented a defense. The judge agreed to correct his "misstatement." He called the jurors back in and told them that they would return to hear evidence of Appellant's damages and Newspaper's defense. The questions the jury answered in the special verdict form were only "advisory interrogatories."

On Monday morning, Newspaper restated its objection to the process followed. Counsel stated it had "never crossed my mind, of course, that you would let the case go out to the jury if there was any—if you had anything going on in your mind that I was going to put up a defense.... I thought you were sending a clear signal to me that I wasn't putting up a defense in this case. What else could it be to send the jury out before I put up a defense?" Newspaper believed the judge planned to dismiss the case on its directed verdict motion even if the jury returned with all "yes" answers. The jury was tainted in Appellant's favor by already discussing the merits of the case and ruling on "advisory interrogatories."

After much discussion, the judge instructed the jury the "special interrogatories" it had answered "are not binding upon you during the remainder of the trial." Appellant would present evidence of damages and Newspaper would present its defense. The case would be submitted anew to the jury, *462 which would not be bound by its earlier answers in the special verdict form.

Accordingly, Appellant presented evidence of damages to her reputation, emotional distress and accompanying physical problems, and loss of the opportunity to start her own counseling business, then rested her case. Newspaper renewed its directed verdict motion on Appellant's status, which was denied.

Newspaper presented its defense, recalling the reporter (who already had testified in Appellant's case), Appellant, and the psychologist mentioned by Pat Beal in the article. Newspaper questioned Appellant about Karen Winner, the author of the "Winner report" which discussed the actions of private guardians in several family court cases. Appellant testified she had separately sued Winner and several other persons for defamation. Appellant testified she asked another guardian ad litem (Marilyn Lassiter, who was named and accused of wrongdoing in the same article) to attend a publicly advertised meeting and secretly tape-record it because she had been told "that a group had been formed to ruin me [and] to try to put me in jail." Appellant also had listened to audiotapes secretly made by two other friends who had attended the group's meetings. Newspaper questioned Appellant about three private letters she wrote in 1999 regarding the guardian reform controversy and questions about her education and training to two Governor's Office officials.

Newspaper renewed its directed verdict motion on Appellant's status and the judge heard additional arguments. Reversing his earlier decision, the judge ruled Appellant was a limited public figure who had not presented clear and convincing evidence to prove Newspaper acted with actual malice. Therefore, the judge granted Newspaper's directed verdict motion. The case was not resubmitted to the jury.

Newspaper's motions to dismiss Appellant's claims for negligence and invasion of privacy had been previously granted pursuant to Rule 12(b)(6), SCRCP, after a pretrial hearing by another circuit judge. Appellant appealed the rulings of both judges. This appeal was certified to the Court on motion of the Court of Appeals pursuant to Rule 204(b), SCACR.

*463 Appellant raises numerous issues. We find it necessary to discuss only three issues and we affirm the remaining issues pursuant to Rule 220(c), SCACR.

ISSUES

I. Did the trial judge err in ruling that Appellant, a private guardian ad litem appointed to represent the children's interests in a divorce and child custody dispute, was a limited public figure who must prove constitutional actual malice in order to recover damages in a defamation action?

II. Does sufficient evidence support the jury's finding of constitutional actual malice such that Appellant, if she is determined to be a private figure, is entitled to recover punitive damages from Newspaper?

III. Did Newspaper agree to bifurcation of the trial on liability and damages, consequently waiving the right to object to bifurcation or its decision not to present evidence during the liability phase of the trial?

STANDARD OF REVIEW

In ruling on a motion for directed verdict, the trial court must view the evidence and the inferences which reasonably can be drawn therefrom in the light most favorable to the party opposing the motion. The trial court must deny the motion when either the evidence yields more than one inference or its inference is in doubt. Strange v. S.C. Dep't of Highways & Pub. Transp., 314 S.C. 427, 429-30, 445 S.E.2d 439, 440 (1994). When considering directed verdict motions, neither the trial court nor the appellate court has authority to decide credibility issues or to resolve conflicts in the testimony or evidence. Creech v. S.C. Wildlife and Marine Resources Dep't, 328 S.C. 24, 491 S.E.2d 571 (1997). The appellate court must determine whether a verdict for a party opposing the motion would be reasonably possible under the facts as liberally construed in his favor. Bultman v. Barber, 277 S.C. 5, 7, 281 S.E.2d 791, 792 (1981). If the evidence is susceptible to more than one reasonable inference, the case should be submitted to the jury. Quesinberry v. Rouppasong, 331 S.C. 589, 594, 503 S.E.2d 717, 720 (1998).

*464 When ruling on a motion for summary judgment or directed verdict in a defamation action, the court must review the evidence using the same substantive evidentiary standard of proof the jury is required to use in a particular case. George v. Fabri, 345 S.C. 440, 451-54, 548 S.E.2d 868, 874-75 (2001). An appellate court reviews the granting of such a motion using the same standard. Id.

In an action at law, on appeal of a case tried by a jury, the jurisdiction of the appellate court extends merely to the correction of errors of law, and a factual finding by the jury will not be disturbed unless a review of the record discloses that there is no evidence which reasonably supports the jury's findings. Townes Assoc., Ltd. v. City of Greenville, 266 S.C. 81, 221 S.E.2d 773 (1976).

LAW AND ANALYSIS

I. APPELLANT'S STATUS AS A PUBLIC OFFICIAL, PUBLIC FIGURE, OR PRIVATE FIGURE

Appellant argues the trial judge erred in granting Newspaper's directed verdict motion that Appellant, a private guardian ad litem appointed to represent the children's interests in a divorce and child custody dispute, was a limited public figure who must prove constitutional actual malice in order to recover damages. Prior to publication of the article, Appellant was not famous, had no special access to the media, never sought the public's attention, did not thrust herself voluntarily into a public controversy, and did not assume any special prominence in the resolution of an issue of public concern. While the debate about potential reform of the guardian system was a public controversy, Appellant contends she was a private figure who must prove by a preponderance of the evidence that Newspaper acted negligently in publishing false and defamatory statements about her in order to recover damages. We agree in part.

The tort of defamation allows a plaintiff to recover for injury to his or her reputation as the result of the defendant's communications to others of a false message about the plaintiff. Holtzscheiter v. Thomson Newspapers, Inc., 332 S.C. 502, 508, 506 S.E.2d 497, 501 (1998) (Holtzscheiter II). *465 Defamatory communications take two forms: libel and slander. Slander is a spoken defamation while libel is a written defamation or one accomplished by actions or conduct. Id.

In order to prove defamation, the plaintiff must show (1) a false and defamatory statement was made; (2) the unprivileged publication was made to a third party; (3) the publisher was at fault; and (4) either actionability of the statement irrespective of special harm or the existence of special harm caused by the publication. Fleming v. Rose, 350 S.C. 488, 494, 567 S.E.2d 857, 860 (2002); Holtzscheiter II, 332 S.C. at 506, 506 S.E.2d at 518 (Toal, J., concurring).

A defamation action is analyzed primarily under the common law in cases in which the plaintiff is a private figure. A statement is classified as defamatory per se when the meaning or message is obvious on its face. A statement is classified as defamatory per quod when the defamatory meaning is not clear unless the hearer knows facts or circumstances not contained in the statement itself, and the plaintiff must introduce extrinsic facts to prove the defamatory meaning. Holtzscheiter II, 332 S.C. at 508-09, 506 S.E.2d at 501. In addition to those classifications, a statement may be actionable per se, in which case the defendant is presumed to have acted with common law malice and the plaintiff is presumed to have suffered general damages. Or a statement may be not actionable per se, in which case nothing is presumed and the plaintiff must plead and prove both common law malice and special damages. The determination of whether or not a statement is actionable per se is a matter of law for the court to resolve. Id. at 509-10, 506 S.E.2d at 501-02.^[6]

Under the common law, "[l]ibel is actionable per se if it involves written or printed words which tend to degrade a person, that is, to reduce his character or reputation in the estimation of his friends or acquaintances, or the public, or to *466 disgrace him, or to render him odious, contemptible, or ridiculous." Holtzscheiter II, 332 S.C. at 510-11, 506 S.E.2d at 502. Essentially, all libel is actionable per se, while only certain categories of slander are actionable per se.^[7]Id. Common law malice means the defendant acted with ill will toward the plaintiff, or acted recklessly or wantonly, i.e., with conscious indifference of the plaintiff's rights. Padgett v. Sun News, 278 S.C. 26, 32, 292 S.E.2d 30, 34 (1982).

There are three important caveats with regard to private-figure plaintiffs, resulting from the need to balance First Amendment rights with the right of individuals to be compensated for damage caused by defamatory statements. First, in a case involving an issue of public controversy or concern where the libelous statement is published by a media defendant, the common law presumptions the defendant acted with common law malice and the plaintiff suffered general damages do not apply. Instead, the private-figure plaintiff must plead and prove common law malice and show "actual injury" in the form of general or special damages. Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 418 U.S. 323, 346-50, 94 S.Ct. 2997, 3010-12, 41 L.Ed.2d 789, 809-11 (1974); Holtzscheiter II, 332 S.C. at 512, 506 S.E.2d at 503 (plurality opinion); Holtzscheiter II, 332 S.C. at 519-20, 506 S.E.2d at 506-07 (Toal, J., concurring). Second, in a case involving an issue of public controversy or concern where the libelous statement is published by a media defendant, the common law presumption that the libelous statement is false is not applied. Instead, the private-figure plaintiff must prove the statement is false. Philadelphia Newspapers, Inc. v. Hepps, 475 U.S. 767, 775-79, 106 S.Ct. 1558, 1563-65, 89 L.Ed.2d 783, 791-94 (1986); Holtzscheiter II, 332 S.C. at 512, 506 S.E.2d at 503; Parker v. Evening Post Pub. Co., 317 S.C. 236, 243, 452 S.E.2d 640, 644 (Ct.App.1994). Third, in order to recover punitive damages from a media defendant, a private-figure plaintiff must prove by clear and convincing evidence that the defendant acted with constitutional *467 actual malice, i.e., the defendant published the statement with knowledge it was false or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not. Gertz, 418 U.S. at 346-50, 94 S.Ct. at 3010-12, 41 L.Ed.2d at 809-11; Holtzscheiter II, 332 S.C. at 512, 506 S.E.2d at 503.

Concepts of common law defamation have been significantly modified since the 1960s by the First Amendment jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court. See Holtzscheiter II 332 S.C. 502, 506 S.E.2d 497 (plurality and concurring opinions discussing impact of First Amendment-based principles). "Congress shall make no law ... abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press." U.S. Const. amend. I. Since New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254, 84 S.Ct. 710, 11 L.Ed.2d 686 (1964), federal and state courts have "sought to define the accommodation required to assure the vigorous debate on public issues that the First Amendment was designed to protect while at the same time affording protection to the reputations of individuals." Hutchinson v. Proxmire, 443 U.S. 111, 133-34, 99 S.Ct. 2675, 2687, 61 L.Ed.2d 411, 430 (1979).

"[T]here is no constitutional value in false statements of fact. Neither the intentional lie nor the careless error materially advances society's interest in uninhibited, robust, and wide-open debate on public issues." Gertz, 418 U.S. at 340, 94 S.Ct. at 3007, 41 L.Ed.2d at 805. Errors, however, are inevitable. "[P]unishment of error runs the risk of inducing a cautious and restrictive exercise of the constitutionally guaranteed freedoms of speech and press. Our decisions recognize that a rule of strict liability that compels a publisher or broadcaster to guarantee the accuracy of his factual assertions may lead to intolerable self-censorship." Id.

Consequently, to prove fault in a defamation action, a plaintiff who is a public official or public figure must prove by clear and convincing evidence that the defendant acted with actual malice in publishing a false and defamatory statement about the plaintiff. New York Times, 376 U.S. at 279-80, 84 S.Ct. at 726, 11 L.Ed.2d at 706; Time, Inc. v. Firestone, 424 U.S. 448, 453-55, 96 S.Ct. 958, 964-66, 47 L.Ed.2d 154, 162-63 (1976); Curtis v. Butts, 388 U.S. 130, 162-65, 87 S.Ct. 1975, 1995-96, 18 L.Ed.2d 1094, 1115-17 *468 (1967) (Warren, Ch. J., concurring); Fleming v. Rose, 350 S.C. 488, 494-95, 567 S.E.2d 857, 860-61 (2002); George v. Fabri, 345 S.C. 440, 451, 548 S.E.2d 868, 874 (2001); Holtzscheiter II, 332 S.C. at 521-23, 506 S.E.2d at 507-08 (Toal, J., concurring). Actual malice exists when a statement is made "with knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not." New York Times, 376 U.S. at 279-80, 84 S.Ct. at 726, 11 L.Ed.2d at 706. "Actual malice under the New York Times standard should not be confused with the concept of [common law] malice as an evil intent or a motive arising from spite or ill will." Masson v. New Yorker Magazine, Inc., 501 U.S. 496, 510, 111 S.Ct. 2419, 2429, 115 L.Ed.2d 447, 468 (1991).

Thus, an important initial step in analyzing any defamation case is determining whether a particular plaintiff is a public official, public figure, or private figure.^[8] This determination is a matter of law which must be decided by the court, on a case by case basis after a careful examination of the facts and circumstances, before the jury is charged on the law or asked to resolve a case. This ruling is needed in order for the court to determine whether to instruct the jury on law applicable to private-figure or public-figure and public-official plaintiffs.^[9]See Rosenblatt v. Baer, 383 U.S. 75, 87, 86 S.Ct. 669, 677, 15 L.Ed.2d 597, 606 (1966) (trial judge generally has duty of in first instance to determine whether allegedly libeled *469 party is a public official); Foretich v. Capital Cities/ABC, Inc., 37 F.3d 1541, 1551 (4th Cir.1994) (question of whether defamation plaintiff is a limited-purpose public figure is an issue of law for the court); Mead Corp. v. Hicks, 448 So.2d 308, 310 (Ala.1983) (stating same principle); Tracey A. Bateman, Who is "Public Figure" for Purposes of Defamation Action, 19 A.L.R.5th 1, 57 (1994) (stating same principle); cf. Sanders v. Prince, 304 S.C. 236, 403 S.E.2d 640 (1991) (directing trial judge to charge only constitutional actual malice principles in retrial of case involving public official, and forbidding charge on inapplicable principles of common law malice).

A. PUBLIC OFFICIAL

Neither the Supreme Court nor this Court has provided a precise or all-encompassing definition of "public official," although it is clear the category does not include all public employees. See Hutchinson, 443 U.S. at 119 n. 8, 99 S.Ct. at 2680 n. 8, 61 L.Ed.2d at 421 n. 8. In general, a public official is a person who, among the hierarchy of government employees, has or appears to the public to have "substantial responsibility for or control over the conduct of governmental affairs." Holtzscheiter II, 332 S.C. at 520 n. 4, 506 S.E.2d at 507 n. 4 (Toal, J., concurring) (quoting Rosenblatt, 383 U.S. at 85, 86 S.Ct. at 676, 15 L.Ed.2d at 605). "In considering the question of whether one is a public official, the employ