United States v. Stein

The United States appeals from an order of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York (Kap-lan, J.), dismissing an indictment against thirteen former partners and employees of the accounting firm KPMG, LLP. Judge Kaplan found that, absent pressure from the government, KPMG would have paid defendants’ legal fees and expenses without regard to cost. Based on this and other findings of fact, Judge Kaplan ruled that the government deprived defendants of their right to counsel under the Sixth Amendment by causing KPMG to impose conditions on the advancement of legal fees to defendants, to cap the fees, and ultimately to end payment. See United States v. Stein, 435 F.Supp.2d 330, 367-73 (S.D.N.Y.2006) (“Stein I ”). Judge Kaplan also ruled that the government deprived defendants of their right to substantive due process under the Fifth Amendment. 1 Id. at 360-65.

*136 We hold that KPMG’s adoption and enforcement of a policy under which it conditioned, capped and ultimately ceased advancing legal fees to defendants followed as a direct consequence of the government’s overwhelming influence, and that KPMG’s conduct therefore amounted to state action. We further hold that the government thus unjustifiably interfered with defendants’ relationship with counsel and their ability to mount a defense, in violation of the Sixth Amendment, and that the government did not cure the violation. Because no other remedy will return defendants to the status quo ante, we affirm the dismissal of the indictment as to all thirteen defendants. 2 In light of this disposition, we do not reach the district court’s Fifth Amendment ruling.

BACKGROUND

The Thompson Memorandum

In January 2003, then-United States Deputy Attorney General Larry D. Thompson promulgated a policy statement, Principles of Federal Prosecution of Business Organizations (the “Thompson Memorandum”), which articulated “principles” to govern the Department’s discretion in bringing prosecutions against business organizations. The Thompson Memorandum was closely based on a predecessor document issued in 1999 by then-U.S. Deputy Attorney General Eric Holder, Federal Prosecution of Corporations. See Stein /, 435 F.Supp.2d at 336-37. Along with the familiar factors governing charging decisions, the Thompson Memorandum identifies nine additional considerations, including the company’s “timely and voluntary disclosure of wrongdoing and its willingness to cooperate in the investigation of its agents.” Mem. from Larry D. Thompson, Deputy Att’y Gen., U.S. Dep’t of Justice, Principles of Federal Prosecution of Business Organizations (Jan. 20, 2003), at II. The Memorandum explains that prosecutors should inquire

whether the corporation appears to be protecting its culpable employees and agents [and that] a corporation’s promise of support to culpable employees and agents, either through the advancing of attorneys fees, through retaining the employees without sanction for their misconduct, or through providing information to the employees about the government’s investigation pursuant to a joint defense agreement, may be considered by the prosecutor in weighing the extent and value of a corporation’s cooperation.

Id. at VI (emphasis added and footnote omitted). A footnote appended to the highlighted phrase explains that because certain states require companies to advance legal fees for their officers, “a corporation’s compliance with governing law should not be considered a failure to cooperate.” Id. at VI n. 4. In December 2006 — after the events in this prosecution had transpired — the Department of Justice replaced the Thompson Memorandum with the McNulty Memorandum, under which prosecutors may consider a company’s fee advancement policy only where the circumstances indicate that it is “intended to impede a criminal investigation,” and even then only with the approval of the Deputy *137 Attorney General. Mem. from Paul J. McNulty, Deputy Att’y Gen., U.S. Dep’t of Justice, Principles of Federal Prosecution of Business Organizations (Dec. 12, 2006), at VII n. 3.

Commencement of the Federal Investigation

After Senate subcommittee hearings in 2002 concerning KPMG’s possible involvement in creating and marketing fraudulent tax shelters, KPMG retained Robert S. Bennett of the law firm Skadden, Arps, Slate, Meagher & Flom LLP (“Skadden”) to formulate a “cooperative approach” for KPMG to use in dealing with federal authorities. Stein I, 435 F.Supp.2d at 339. Bennett’s strategy included “a decision to ‘clean house’ — a determination to ask Jeffrey Stein, Richard Smith, and Jeffrey Eis-cheid, all senior KPMG partners who had testified before the Senate and all now [Defendants-Appellees] here — to leave their positions as deputy chair and chief operating officer of the firm, vice chair-tax services, and a partner in personal financial planning, respectively.” Id. Smith was transferred and Eischeid was put on administrative leave. Id. at 339 n. 22. Stein resigned with arrangements for a three-year $100,000-per-month consultancy, and an agreement that KPMG would pay for Stein’s representation in any actions brought against Stein arising from his activities at the firm. Id. at 339. KPMG negotiated a contract with Smith that included a similar clause; but that agreement was never executed. Stein IV, 495 F.Supp.2d at 408.

In February 2004, KPMG officials learned that the firm and 20 to 30 of its top partners and employees were subjects of a grand jury investigation of fraudulent tax shelters. Stein I, 435 F.Supp.2d at 341. On February 18, 2004, KPMG’s CEO announced to all partners that the firm was aware of the United States Attorney’s Office’s (“USAO”) investigation and that “[a]ny present or former members of the firm asked to appear will be represented by competent coun[sel] at the firm’s expense.” Stein IV, 495 F.Supp.2d at 407 (first alteration in original and internal quotation marks omitted).

The February 25, 2004 Meeting

In preparation for a meeting with Skad-den on February 25, 2004, the.prosecutors — including Assistant United States Attorneys (“AUSAs”) Shirah Neiman and Justin Weddle — decided to ask whether KPMG would advance legal fees to employees under investigation. Stein I, 435 F.Supp.2d at 341. Bennett started the meeting by announcing that KPMG had resolved to “clean house,” that KPMG “would cooperate fully with the government’s investigation,” and that its goal was not to protect individual employees but rather to save the firm from being indicted. Id. AUSA Weddle inquired about the firm’s plans for advancing fees and about any legal obligation to do so. Id. Later on, AUSA Neiman added that the government would “take into account” the firm’s legal obligations to advance fees, but that “the Thompson Memorandum [w]as a point that had to be considered.” Id. Bennett then advised that although KPMG was still investigating its legal obligations to advance fees, its “common practice” was to do so. Id. at 342. However, Bennett explained, KPMG would not pay legal fees for any partner who refused to cooperate or “took the Fifth,” so long as KPMG had the legal authority to do so. Id.

Later in the meeting, AUSA Weddle asked Bennett to ascertain KPMG’s legal obligations to advance attorneys’ fees. AUSA Neiman added that “misconduct” should not or cannot “be rewarded” under “federal guidelines.” Id. One Skadden attorney’s notes attributed to AUSA Weddle the prediction that, if KPMG had discre *138 tion regarding fees, the government would “look at that under a microscope.” Id. at 344 (emphasis omitted).

Skadden then reported back to KPMG. In notes of the meeting, a KPMG executive wrote the words “[p]aying legal fees” and “[s]everance” next to “not a sign of cooperation.” Stein TV, 495 F.Supp.2d at 408.

Communications Between the Prosecutors and KPMG

On March 2, 2004, Bennett told AUSA Weddle that although KPMG believed it had no legal obligation to advance fees, “it would be a big problem” for the firm not to do so given its partnership structure. Stein I, 435 F.Supp.2d at 345 (internal quotation marks omitted). But Bennett disclosed KPMG’s tentative decision to limit the amount of fees and condition them on employees’ cooperation with prosecutors. Id.

Two days later, a Skadden lawyer advised counsel for Defendant-Appellee Carol G. Warley (a former KPMG tax partner) that KPMG would advance legal fees if Warley cooperated with the government and declined to invoke her Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination. Id.

On a March 11 conference call with Skadden, AUSA Weddle recommended that KPMG tell employees that they should be “totally open” with the USAO, “even if that [meant admitting] criminal wrongdoing,” explaining that this would give him good material for cross-examination. Id. (alteration in original and internal quotation marks omitted). That same day, Skadden wrote to counsel for the KPMG employees who had been identified as subjects of the investigation. Id. The letter set forth KPMG’s new fees policy (“Fees Policy”), pursuant to which advancement of fees and expenses would be

[i] capped at $400,000 per employee;

[ii] conditioned on the employee’s cooperation with the government; and

[iii] terminated when an employee was indicted.

Id. at 345-46. The government was copied on this correspondence. Id. at 345.

On March 12, KPMG sent a memorandum to certain other employees who had not been identified as subjects, urging them to cooperate with the government, advising them that it might be advantageous for them to exercise their right to counsel, and advising that KPMG would cover employees’ “reasonable fees.” Id. at 346 n. 62.

The prosecutors expressed by letter their “disappointment] with [the] tone” of this memorandum and its “one-sided presentation of potential issues,” and “demanded that KPMG send out a supplemental memorandum in a form they proposed.” Id. at 346. The government’s alternative language, premised on the “assum[ption] that KPMG truly is committed to fully cooperating with the Government’s investigation,” Letter of David N. Kelley, United States Attorney, Southern District of New York, March 17, 2004, advised employees that they could “meet with investigators without the assistance of counsel,” Stein I, 435 F.Supp.2d at 346 (emphasis omitted). KPMG complied, and circulated a memo advising that employees “may deal directly with government representatives without counsel.” Id. (emphasis omitted).

At a meeting in late March, Skadden asked the prosecutors to notify Skadden in the event any KPMG employee refused to cooperate. Id. at 347. Over the following year, the prosecutors regularly informed Skadden whenever a KPMG employee refused to cooperate fully, such as by refusing to proffer or by proffering incompletely (in the government’s view). *139 Id. Skadden, in turn, informed the employees’ lawyers that fee advancement would cease unless the employees cooperated. Id. The employees either knuckled under and submitted to interviews, or they were fired and KPMG ceased advancing their fees. For example, Watson and Smith attended proffer sessions after receiving KPMG’s March 11 letter announcing the Fees Policy, and after Skad-den reiterated to them that fees would be terminated absent cooperation. They did so because (they said, and the district court found) they feared that KPMG would stop advancing attorneys fees — although Watson concedes he attended a first session voluntarily. 3 See United States v. Stein, 440 F.Supp.2d 315, 330-33 (S.D.N.Y.2006) (“Stein II”). As Bennett later assured AUSA Weddle: “Whenever your Office has notified us that individuals have not ... cooperated], KPMG has promptly and without question encouraged them to cooperate and threatened to cease payment of their attorney fees and ... to take personnel action, including termination.” Letter of Robert Bennett to United States Attorney’s Office, November 2, 2004; see, e.g., Stein II, 440 F.Supp.2d at 323 (describing KPMG’s termination of Defendant-Appellant Warley after she invoked her Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination).

KPMG Avoids Indictment

In an early-March 2005 meeting, then-U.S. Attorney David Kelley told Skadden and top KPMG executives that a non-prosecution agreement was unlikely and that he had reservations about KPMG’s level of cooperation: “I’ve seen a lot better from big companies.” Bennett reminded Kelley how KPMG had capped and conditioned its advancement of legal fees. Kelley remained unconvinced.

KPMG moved up the Justice Department’s chain of command. At a June 13, 2005 meeting with U.S. Deputy Attorney General James Comey, Bennett stressed KPMG’s pressure on employees to cooperate by conditioning legal fees on cooperation; it was, he said, “precedent[ Jsetting.” Stein I, 435 F.Supp.2d at 349 (internal quotation marks omitted). KPMG’s entreaties were ultimately successful: on August 29, 2005, the firm entered into a deferred prosecution agreement (the “DPA”) under which KPMG admitted extensive wrongdoing, paid a $456 million fine, and committed itself to cooperation in any future government investigation or prosecution. Id. at 349-50.

Indictment of Individual Employees

On August 29, 2005 — the same day KPMG executed the DPA — the government indicted six of the Defendants-Ap-pellees (along with three other KPMG employees): Jeffrey Stein; Richard Smith; Jeffrey Eischeid; John Lanning, Vice Chairman of Tax Services; Philip Wiesner, a former tax partner; and Mark Watson, a tax partner. A superseding indictment filed on October 17, 2005 named ten additional employees, including seven of the Defendants-Appellees: Larry DeLap, a former tax partner in charge of professional practice; Steven Gremminger, a former partner and associate general counsel; former tax partners Gregg Ritchie, Randy Bickham and Carl Hasting; Carol G. War-ley; and Richard Rosenthal, a former tax partner and Chief Financial Officer of KPMG. 4 Pursuant to the Fees Policy, *140 KPMG promptly stopped advancing legal fees to the indicted employees who were still receiving them. Id. at 350.

Procedural History

On January 12, 2006, the thirteen defendants (among others) moved to dismiss the indictment based on the government’s interference with KPMG’s advancement of fees. 5 In a submission to the district court, KPMG represented that

the Thompson memorandum in conjunction with the government’s statements relating to payment of legal fees affected KPMG’s determination(s) with respect to the advancement of legal fees and other defense costs to present or former partners and employees .... In fact, KPMG is prepared to state that the Thompson memorandum substantially influenced KPMG’s decisions with respect to legal fees....

Stein IV, 495 F.Supp.2d at 405 (internal quotation marks and emphasis omitted).

At a hearing on March 30, 2006, Judge Kaplan asked the government whether it was “prepared at this point to commit that [it] has no objection whatsoever to KPMG exercising its free and independent business judgment as to whether to advance defense costs to these defendants and that if it were to elect to do so the government would not in any way consider that in determining whether it had complied with the DPA?” The AUSA responded: “That’s always been the case, your Honor. That’s fíne. We have no objection to that.... They can always exercise their business judgment. As you described it, your Hon- or, that’s always been the case. It’s the case today, your Honor.”

Judge Kaplan ordered discovery and held a three-day evidentiary hearing in May 2006 to ascertain whether the government had contributed to KPMG’s adoption of the Fees Policy. The court heard testimony from two prosecutors, one IRS agent, three Skadden attorneys, and one lawyer from KPMG’s Office of General Counsel, among others. Numerous documents produced in discovery by both sides were admitted into evidence.

Stein I

Judge Kaplan’s opinion and order of June 26, 2006 noted, as the parties had stipulated, that KPMG’s past practice was to advance legal fees for employees facing regulatory, civil and criminal investigations without condition or cap. See Stein /, 435 F.Supp.2d at 340. Starting from that baseline, Judge Kaplan made the following findings of fact. At the February 25, 2004 meeting, Bennett began by “testing] the waters to see whether KPMG could adhere to its practice of paying its employees’ legal expenses when litigation loomed [by asking] for [the] government’s view on the subject.” Id. at 341 (footnote omitted). It is not clear what AUSA Neiman intended to convey when she said that “misconduct” should not or cannot “be rewarded” under “federal guidelines”; but her statement “was understood by both KPMG and government representatives as a reminder that payment of legal fees by KPMG, beyond any that it might legally be obligated to pay, could well count against KPMG in the government’s decision whether to indict the firm.” Id. at 344 (internal quotation marks omitted). “[W]hile the USAO did not say in so many words that it did not want KPMG to pay legal fees, no one *141 at the meeting could have failed to draw that conclusion.” Id.

Based on those findings, Judge Kaplan arrived at the following ultimate findings of fact, all of which the government contests on appeal:

[1] “the Thompson Memorandum caused KPMG to consider departing from its long-standing policy of paying legal fees and expenses of its personnel in all cases and investigations even before it first met with the USAO” and induced KPMG to seek “an indication from the USAO that payment of fees in accordance with its settled practice would not be held against it”;

[2] the government made repeated references to the Thompson Memo in an effort to “reinforce! ] the threat inherent in the Thompson Memorandum”;

[3] “the government conducted itself in a manner that evidenced a desire to minimize the involvement of defense attorneys”; and

[4] but for the Thompson Memorandum and the prosecutors’ conduct, KPMG would have paid defendants’ legal fees and expenses without consideration of cost.

Id. at 352-53.

Against that background, Judge Kaplan ruled that a defendant has a fundamental right under the Fifth Amendment to fairness in the criminal process, including the ability to get and deploy in defense all “resources lawfully available to him or her, free of knowing or reckless government interference,” id. at 361, and that the government’s reasons for infringing that right in this case could not withstand strict scrutiny, id. at 362-65. Judge Kaplan also ruled that the same conduct deprived each defendant of the Sixth Amendment right “to choose the lawyer or lawyers he or she desires and to use one’s own funds to mount the defense that one wishes to present.” Id. at 366 (footnote omitted). He reasoned that “the government’s law enforcement interests in taking the specific actions in question [do not] sufficiently outweigh the interests of the KPMG Defendants in having the resources needed to defend as they think proper against these charges.” Id. at 368. “[T]he fact that advancement of legal fees occasionally might be part of an obstruction scheme or indicate a lack of full cooperation by a prospective defendant is insufficient to justify the government’s interference with the right of individual criminal defendants to obtain resources lawfully available to them in order to defend themselves....” Id. at 369.

Judge Kaplan rejected the government’s position that defendants have no right to spend “other people’s money” on high-priced defense counsel: “[T]he KPMG Defendants had at least an expectation that their expenses in defending any claims or charges brought against them by reason of their employment by KPMG would be paid by the firm,” and “any benefits that would have flowed from that expectation — the legal fees at issue now — were, in every material sense, their property, not that of a third party.” Id. at 367. He further determined that defendants need not show how their defense was impaired: the government’s interference with their Sixth Amendment “right to be represented as they choose,” “like a deprivation of the right to counsel of their choice, is complete irrespective of the quality of the representation they receive.” Id. at 369.

As to remedy, Judge Kaplan conceded that dismissal of the indictment would be inappropriate unless other avenues for obtaining fees from KPMG were first exhausted. Id. at 373-80. To that end, Judge Kaplan invited defendants to file a civil suit against KPMG under the district court’s ancillary jurisdiction. Id. at 377- *142 80, 382. The suit was commenced, and Judge Kaplan denied KPMG’s motion to dismiss. United States v. Stein, 452 F.Supp.2d 230 (S.D.N.Y.2006) (“Stein III ”). However, this Court ruled that the district court lacked ancillary jurisdiction over the action. Stein v. KPMG, LLP, 486 F.3d 753 (2d Cir.2007).

Stein TV

Judge Kaplan dismissed the indictment against the thirteen defendants on July 16, 2007. Stein TV, 495 F.Supp.2d at 427. He reinforced the ruling in Stein I that the government violated defendants’ right to substantive due process by holding that the prosecutors’ conduct also “independently shock[s] the conscience.” Id. at 412-15. Judge Kaplan concluded that no remedy other than dismissal of the indictment would put defendants in the position they would have occupied absent the government’s misconduct. Id. at 419-28.

The government appeals the dismissal of the indictment.

DISCUSSION

We review first [I] the government’s challenges to the district court’s factual findings, including its finding that but for the Thompson Memorandum and the prosecutors’ conduct KPMG would have paid employees’ legal fees — pre-indictment and post-indictment — without regard to cost. Next, because we are hesitant to resolve constitutional questions unnecessarily, [II] we inquire whether the government cured the purported Sixth Amendment violation by the AUSA’s in-court statement on March 30, 2006 that KPMG was free to decide whether to advance fees. Since we conclude that this statement did not return defendants to the status quo ante, [III] we decide whether the promulgation and enforcement of KPMG’s Fees Policy amounted to state action under the Constitution and [IV] whether the government deprived defendants of their Sixth Amendment right to counsel.

I

The government challenges certain factual findings of the district court. We review those findings for clear error, viewing the evidence in the light most favorable to defendants and asking whether we are left “with the definite and firm conviction that a mistake has been committed.” Anderson v. City of Bessemer City, 470 U.S. 564, 573, 105 S.Ct. 1504, 84 L.Ed.2d 518 (1985) (internal quotation marks omitted).

The government points out that the Thompson Memorandum lists “fees advancement” as just one of many considerations in a complex charging decision, and thus argues that Judge Kaplan overread the Thompson Memorandum as a threat that KPMG would be indicted unless it ceased advancing legal fees to its employees.

Judge Kaplan’s finding withstands scrutiny. KPMG was faced with the fatal prospect of indictment; it could be expected to do all it could, assisted by sophisticated counsel, to placate and appease the government. As Judge Kaplan noted, KPMG’s chief legal officer, Sven Erik Holmes, testified that he considered it crucial “to be able to say at the right time with the right audience, we’re in full compliance with the Thompson Memorandum.” Stein I, 435 F.Supp.2d at 364 (emphasis added and internal quotation marks omitted). Moreover, KPMG’s management and counsel had reason to consider the impact of the firm’s indictment on the interests of the firm’s partners, employees, clients, creditors and retirees.

The government reads the Thompson Memorandum to say that fees advance *143 ment is to be considered as a negative factor only when it is part of a campaign to “circle the wagons,” ie., to protect culpable employees and obstruct investigators. And it is true that the Thompson Memorandum instructs a prosecutor to ask “whether the corporation appears to be protecting its culpable employees and agents.” But even if the government’s reading is plausible, the wording nevertheless empowers prosecutors to determine which employees will be deprived of company-sponsored counsel: prosecutors may reasonably foresee that employees they identify as “culpable” will be cut off from fees.

The government also takes issue with Judge Kaplan’s finding that the prosecutors (acting under DOJ policy) deliberately reinforced the threat inherent in the Thompson Memorandum. Id. at 352-53. It protests that KPMG considered conditioning legal fees on cooperation even before the February 25, 2004 meeting and that KPMG adopted its Fees Policy free from government influence. However, Judge Kaplan’s interpretation of the meeting is supported by the following record evidence. Because withholding of fees would be problematic for a partnership like KPMG, Bennett began by attempting to “sound out” the government’s position on the issue. Stein TV, 495 F.Supp.2d at 402. The prosecutors declined to sign off on KPMG’s prior arrangement. Instead they asked KPMG to ascertain whether it had a legal obligation to advance fees. KPMG responded with its fallback position: conditioning fees on cooperation. Id. In Judge Kaplan’s view, this was not an official policy announcement, but rather a proposal: Skadden lawyers repeatedly emphasized to the prosecutors that no final decision had been made. One available inference from all this is that the prosecutors’ inquiry about KPMG’s legal obligations was a routine check for conflicts of interest; but on this record, Judge Kaplan was entitled to see things differently. 6

Nor can we disturb Judge Kaplan’s finding that “the government conducted itself in a manner that evidenced a desire to minimize the involvement of defense attorneys.” Stein I, 435 F.Supp.2d at 353. During the March 11 phone call between the prosecutors and Skadden, AUSA Wed-dle demanded that KPMG tell its employees to be “totally open” with the USAO, “even if that [meant admitting] criminal wrongdoing,” so that he could gather material for cross-examination. Id. at 345 (alterations in original and internal quotation marks omitted). On March 12, the prosecutors prevailed upon KPMG to supplement its first advisory letter with another, which clarified that employees could meet with the government without counsel. In addition, prosecutors repeatedly used Skadden to threaten to withhold legal fees from employees who refused to proffer— even if defense counsel had recommended that an employee invoke the Fifth Amendment privilege. Judge Kaplan could reasonably reject the government’s version of these events.

Finally, we cannot say that the district court’s ultimate finding of fact—that absent the Thompson Memorandum and the prosecutors’ conduct KPMG would have advanced fees without condition or cap—was clearly erroneous. The government itself stipulated in Stein I that KPMG had a “longstanding voluntary *144 practice” of advancing and paying employees’ legal fees “without regard to economic costs or considerations” and “without a preset cap or condition of cooperation with the government ... in any civil, criminal or regulatory proceeding” arising from activities within the scope of employment. Id. at 340 (internal quotation marks omitted). Although it “is far from certain” that KPMG is legally obligated to advance defendants’ legal fees, Stein v. KPMG, LLP, 486 F.3d 753, 762 n. 3 (2d Cir.2007), a firm may have potent incentives to advance fees, such as the ability to recruit and retain skilled professionals in a profession fraught with legal risk. Also, there is evidence that, before the prosecutors’ intervention, KPMG executed an agreement under which it would advance Stem’s legal fees without cap or condition (and negotiated toward an identical agreement with Smith). And while the government maintains that the civil, criminal and regulatory investigations confronting KPMG constituted an unprecedented state of affairs that might have caused KPMG to adopt new and different policies, Judge Kaplan was not required to agree. Indeed, KPMG itself represented to the court that the Thompson Memorandum and the prosecutors’ conduct “substantially influenced [its] determination(s) with respect to the advancement of legal fees.”

For the foregoing reasons, we cannot disturb Judge Kaplan’s factual findings, including his finding that, but for the Thompson Memorandum and the prosecutors’ conduct, KPMG would have advanced legal fees without condition or cap.

II

We now consider the government’s claim of cure. If the government is correct, the “taint” of the purported Sixth Amendment violation would be “neutralize[d],” dismissal of the indictment would be inappropriate, and we could avoid deciding the constitutional question. United States v. Morrison, 449 U.S. 361, 365, 101 S.Ct. 665, 66 L.Ed.2d 564 (1981); see, e.g., id. at 366-67, 101 S.Ct. 665 (referring to “[t]he Sixth Amendment violation, if any ” and concluding that “the violation, which we assume has occurred, has had no adverse impact upon the criminal proceedings” (emphases added)).

“Cases involving Sixth Amendment deprivations are subject to the general rule that remedies should be tailored to the injury suffered from the constitutional violation and should not unnecessarily infringe on competing interests.” Id. at 364, 101 S.Ct. 665. Therefore, we must “identify and then neutralize the taint by tailoring relief appropriate in the circumstances to assure the defendant the effective assistance of counsel and a fair trial.” Id. at 365, 101 S.Ct. 665. Dismissal of an indictment is a remedy of last resort, id., and is appropriate only where necessary to “restoref] the defendant to the circumstances that would have existed had there been no constitutional error,” United States v. Carmichael, 216 F.3d 224, 227 (2d Cir.2000).

In Stein IV, Judge Kaplan concluded that dismissal of the indictment as to the thirteen defendants was warranted because no other remedy would restore them to the position they would have enjoyed but for the government’s unconstitutional conduct. Stein IV, 495 F.Supp.2d at 419-28. Specifically, Judge Kaplan found that the government deprived four defendants — Gremminger, Hasting, Ritchie and Watson — of counsel of their choice. Id. at 421 (“[T]hey simply lack the resources to engage the lawyers of their choice, lawyers who had represented them as long as KPMG was paying the bills.” (footnote omitted)). Judge Kaplan also found that all thirteen defendants — even those who *145 were still represented by their counsel of choice — -were forced by KPMG’s withholding of post-indictment legal fees “to limit their defenses ... for economic reasons and that they would not have been so constrained if KPMG paid their expenses.” Id. at 419. After reviewing defendants’ finances and determining the estimated cost of legal representation, Judge Kaplan concluded: “[N]one of the thirteen KPMG Defendants ... has the resources to defend this case as he or she would have defended it had KPMG been paying the cost, even if he or she liquidated all property owned by the defendant.” Id. at 425.

The government argues that it cured any Sixth Amendment violation on March 30, 2006, when it told the district court that KPMG was free to “exercise [its] business judgment.” Therefore, the government contends, the appropriate remedy for any constitutional violation would be to allow defendants to retain their counsel of choice using whatever funds KPMG is willing to provide now. At most, the government claims, all that would be warranted is an adjournment of trial to afford defendants additional time to review documents and consult with counsel and expert witnesses; and since 16 months passed between the government’s March 30, 2006 in-court statement and the July 16, 2007 dismissal of the indictment, defendants have already enjoyed this remedy.

Judge Kaplan was unpersuaded. In his view, KPMG is unlikely to pay defendants’ legal fees as if the government had never exerted any pressure: KPMG might prefer not to be seen as reversing course and implicitly “admitting that it caved in to government pressure”; the defendants have been “indicted on charges the full scope of which may not previously have been foreseeable to KPMG” — so that defense costs may be larger than expected; and KPMG has since paid a $456 million fine under the DPA, reducing the firm’s available resources. Stein /, 435 F.Supp.2d at 374.

We agree with the district court. The prosecutor’s isolated and ambiguous statement in a proceeding to which KPMG was not a party (and the nearly 16-month period of legal limbo that ensued) did not restore defendants to the status quo ante.

Judge Kaplan asked whether the government would represent that [i] it has no object