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Full Opinion
OPINION
This case arises because plaintiff, to paraphrase Groucho Marx, wouldn’t belong to any video club that would have him as a member. More precisely, plaintiff sues over an advertisement for defendant National Video (National) in which defendant Boroff, allegedly masquarading as plaintiff, portrays a satisfied holder of National’s movie rental V.I.P. Card. Plaintiff asserts that the advertisement appropriates his face and implies his endorsement, and that it therefore violates his statutory right to privacy, his right to publicity, and the federal Lanham Act’s prohibition of misleading advertising. Plaintiff, basing jurisdiction on diversity of citizenship, seeks an injunction against Boroff and defendant Smith, Boroff’s agent, and damages against all defendants. 1
Defendants, while conceding that Boroff looks remarkably like plaintiff, deny that the advertisement appropriates plaintiff’s likeness or that it poses a likelihood of consumer confusion. In addition, defendants Smith and Boroff seek indemnity under an alleged contract with defendant National, and charge that National violated Boroff’s own privacy rights and breached the contract in using Boroff’s picture without a required disclaimer and by placing it in media not authorized by the contract. National disputes that it ever entered into the alleged contract, and claims instead to have a general release from Boroff.
This matter is before the court on cross motions for summary judgment on the above claims, and on the motions of plaintiff and defendant National to amend their pleadings. For the reasons set forth below, plaintiff’s motion for summary judgment is granted; defendants’ motions for summary judgment against plaintiff are denied; defendants Smith and Boroff’s motion for summary judgment against defendant National is granted in part and denied in part. The motions of plaintiff and defendant National to amend their pleadings are granted.
FACTS
The following facts are not in dispute. Plaintiff Woody Allen is a film director, writer, actor, and comedian. Among the films plaintiff has directed are “Annie Hall,” which won several Academy Awards, “Manhattan,” “Bananas,” “Sleeper,” “Broadway Danny Rose,” and, most recently, “The Purple Rose of Cairo.” 2 In addition to being a critically successful artist, plaintiff has for more than 15 years been a major international celebrity. Although he has not often lent his name to commercial endeavors other than his own projects, plaintiff’s many years in show business have made his name and his face familiar to millions of people. This familiarity, and plaintiff’s reputation for artistic integrity, have significant, exploitable, commercial value.
The present action arises from an advertisement, placed by National to promote its nationally franchised video rental chain, containing a photograph of defendant Boroff taken on September 2, 1983. The photograph portrays a customer in a National Video store, an individual in his forties, with a high forehead, tousled hair, and heavy black glasses. The customer’s elbow is on the counter, and his face, bearing an expression at once quizzical and somewhat smug, is leaning on his hand. It is not disputed that, in general, the physical *618 features and pose are characteristic of plaintiff.
The staging of the photograph also evokes associations with plaintiff. Sitting on the counter are videotape cassettes of “Annie Hall” and “Bananas,” two of plaintiff’s best known films, as well as “Casablanca” and “The Maltese Falcon.” The latter two are Humphrey Bogart films of the 1940’s associated with plaintiff primarily because of his play and film “Play It Again, Sam,” in which the spirit of Bogart appears to the character played by Allen and offers him romantic advice. In addition, the title “Play It Again, Sam” is a famous, although inaccurate, quotation from “Casablanca.”
The individual in the advertisement is holding up a National Video V.I.P. Card, which apparently entitles the bearer to favorable terms on movie rentals. The woman behind the counter is smiling at the customer and appears to be gasping in exaggerated excitement at the presence of a celebrity.
The photograph was used in an advertisement which appeared in the March 1984 issue of “Video Review,” a magazine published in New York and distributed in the Southern District, and in the April 1984 issue of “Take One,” an in-house publication which National distributes to its franchisees across the country. The headline on the advertisement reads “Become a V.I.P. at National Video. We’ll Make You Feel Like a Star.” The copy goes on to explain that holders of the V.I.P. card receive “hassle-free movie renting” and “special savings” and concludes that “you don’t need a famous face to be treated to some pretty famous service.”
The same photograph and headline were also used on countercards distributed to National’s franchisees. Although the advertisement that ran in “Video Review” contained a disclaimer in small print reading “Celebrity double provided by Ron Smith’s Celebrity Look-Alike’s, Los Angeles, Calif.,” no such disclaimer appeared in the other versions of the advertisement.
None of the defendants deny that the advertisements in question were designed, placed, and authorized by defendant National, that defendant Boroff was selected and posed as he was to capitalize on his resemblance to plaintiff and to attract the attention of movie watchers, that defendants Boroff and Smith were aware of this purpose in agreeing to supply Boroff’s services, and that in fact Smith and Boroff have on other occasions offered the services of Boroff, a Los Angeles-based actor and director, as a look-alike for plaintiff. Moreover, defendants do not dispute that the photograph in question was used for commercial purposes, and that plaintiff did not give his consent to the use of the photograph.
Plaintiff maintains that these undisputed facts require the court to enter summary judgment for him on his right to privacy, right of publicity, and Lanham Act claims. He urges the court to find, as a matter of law, that defendants used his picture or portrait for commercial purposes without his permission, and that the advertisements were materially misleading and likely to result in consumer confusion as to his endorsement of National’s services.
Defendants insist that other disputed facts require denial of plaintiff’s motion. Although defendants concede that they sought to evoke by reference plaintiff’s general persona, they strenuously deny that they intended to imply that the person in the photograph was actually plaintiff or that plaintiff endorsed National. Defendants offer their own interpretation of the advertisement to support their assertion that the photograph does not depict plaintiff. According to defendants, the idea of the advertisement is that even people who are not stars are treated like stars at National Video. They insist that the advertisement depicts a “Woody Allen fan,” so dedicated that he has adopted his idol’s appearance and mannerisms, who is able to live out his fantasy by receiving star treatment at National Video. The knowing viewer is supposed to be amused that the counter person actually believes that the customer is Woody Allen.
*619 Defendants urge that this interpretation cannot be rejected as a matter of law, and that if defendant Boroff merely appeared as someone who looks like Woody Allen, but not as Woody Allen himself, then plaintiffs rights were not violated. Defendants further seek summary judgment against plaintiff on the basis that plaintiff has offered no actual evidence that anyone was actually deceived into thinking that the photograph was of him. 3 In addition, defendants Smith and Boroff seek summary judgment on the basis that they did not “use” the picture in New York, as required under the privacy statute, because the photo session took place in Oregon and they had no control over the design of the advertisement or its placement. Smith and Boroff further urge that they never misrepresented Boroff as plaintiff, that they had insisted that National include a disclaimer in all advertisements using the photo, and that they are therefore guilty of no wrongful conduct and cannot be held liable for the misdeeds of National.
Plaintiff rejects defendants’ explanation of the advertisement as fanciful and asserts that since all defendants knowingly participated in creating a photograph that amounts to a portrait of plaintiff to be used for advertising in a national magazine, they are all jointly and severally liable for violating plaintiff’s rights.
In addition to the issues outlined above, defendants Smith and Boroff seek indemnity from defendant National, which itself contests the form and content of its contract with Smith and Boroff. It is not disputed that in preparation for the photo session in Oregon, Smith and Boroff sent to National a printed form contract which, inter alia, permitted the photographs produced to be used “one or two times” in “Video Review” magazine, prohibited National from representing that Boroff was really Woody Allen, required a disclaimer such as was used in one of the advertisements, and bound National to “forever indemnify and hold harmless and compensate completely” Smith and Boroff for any civil liability resulting from the use of the lookalike’s picture.
This contract was delivered to National with defendant Smith’s signature, and a blank space for National’s representative to sign. It is not disputed that no one ever signed the contract for National. Moreover, National insists that its president, Ron Berger, was unhappy with the indemnification terms, and instructed National’s staff designer to work out an oral contract simply to pay Smith and Boroff $2,000 for a one day photo session, with no other strings attached; It is not disputed, however, that this dissatisfaction was never specifically conveyed to Smith and Boroff, and that the written contract was never specifically disavowed; the parties simply proceeded with the photo session.
Smith and Boroff maintain that National adopted the written contract through its performance of the terms and its failure specifically to reject it, and that National should therefore be required to indemnify them for any liability in this case. Further, Smith and Boroff insist that National breached the contract by failing to include a disclaimer in some versions of the advertisement, and by using the photograph in media not authorized by the contract, and that these unauthorized uses of Boroff’s photograph for commercial purposes violate Boroff’s privacy rights under New York law.
National' maintains that only an oral agreement, established in telephone conversations and in person at the photo session, governs the relationship of the parties. Al *620 though National does not dispute that it knew that a disclaimer had to be included in all uses of the advertisement, it maintains that an invoice sent by Smith and Boroff with the contract and bearing the words “MODEL RELEASE NOT VALID UNTIL THIS INVOICE IS PAID” operated as a general model release once the $2,000 was paid, defeating Smith and Boroff s contractual claims. At least, argues National, material issues of fact exist regarding the contract which necessitate the denial of summary judgment to Smith and Boroff.
DISCUSSION
Privacy and Publicity Claims
Plaintiff’s right to privacy claim, upon which the parties have focused in this litigation, is based on sections 50 and 51 of the New York Civil Rights Law. These narrowly drawn provisions were enacted in the early years of the century when recognition of the novel right was controversial. Although the court concludes that a more appropriate remedy for plaintiff is provided by the Lanham Act, it includes the following discussion for its value in framing the unusual questions presented in this case.
The beginning of modern privacy law is generally charted from the publication of the famous Warren and Bradeis article, The Right to Privacy, 4 Harv.L. Rev. 193 (1890). Although most states, in the decades since, have recognized at least four different categories of invasion of privacy, see Restatement (Second) of Torts, section 652A (1977), New York has never recognized the right to privacy as part of its common law. Arrington v. New York Times Co., 55 N.Y.2d 433, 439-40, 434 N.E.2d 1319, 449 N.Y.S.2d 941, 943 (1982), cert. denied, 459 U.S. 1146, 103 S.Ct. 787, 74 L.Ed.2d 994 (1983).
Arrington reaffirms the rule first established in Roberson v. Rochester Folding Box Co., 171 N.Y. 538, 64 N.E. 442 (1902). The New York Court of Appeals therein rejected an argument, based on the Warren and Brandéis article, that New York should recognize the branch of privacy law which has come to be known as misappropriation of another’s name or likeness. Plaintiff Roberson sought to recover for the humiliation she felt when she discovered that some 25,000 copies of her portrait had been distributed throughout the country without her consent as part of an advertisement for flour. The court held that no precedent supported plaintiff’s argument, that recognition of such a common law right would result in endless litigation, and that only the legislature could create this new right. Id. at 543-45, 64 N.E. at 443.
In response to public outcry over the outcome of Roberson, the New York legislature passed sections 50 and 51 of the Civil Rights Law in 1903. In its present form the statute provides that
A person, firm or corporation that uses for advertising purposes, or for purposes of trade, the name, portrait or picture of any living person without having first obtained the written consent of such person, is guilty of a misdemeanor.
N.Y.Civ. Rights Law section 50 (McKinney 1976). Section 51 provides in addition that
Any person whose name, portrait or picture is used within the state for advertising purposes or for purposes of trade without the written consent first obtained as above provided may maintain an equitable action in the supreme court of this state against the person, firm or corporation so using his name, portrait or picture, to prevent and restrain the use thereof; and may also sue and recover damages for any injuries sustained by reason of such use and if defendant shall have knowingly used such person’s name, portrait or picture in such a manner as is forbidden or declared to be unlawful by the last section, the jury, in its discretion, may award exemplary damages____
The right to privacy recognized by the Civil Rights law has been strictly construed, both because it is in derogation of New York common law, Shields v. Gross, 58 N.Y.2d 338, 448 N.E.2d 108, 461 N.Y.S.2d 254, 257 (1983), and because of poten *621 tial conflict with the First Amendment, particularly where public figures are involved. Ann-Margaret v. High Society Magazine, Inc., 498 F.Supp. 401, 404 (S.D.N.Y.1980). To make out a violation, a plaintiff must satisfy three distinct elements: 1) use of his or her name, portrait, or picture, 2) for commercial or trade purposes, 3) without written permission. Merely suggesting certain characteristics of the plaintiff, without literally using his or her name, portrait, or picture, is not actionable under the statute. See, e.g., Wojtowicz v. Delacorte Press, 43 N.Y.2d 858, 374 N.E.2d 129, 403 N.Y.S.2d 218 (1978) (identifiable description of plaintiff in dramatization of true story, without showing her face or using her real name, did not violate statute); Lombardo v. Doyle Dane & Birnbach, 58 A.D.2d 620, 396 N.Y.S.2d 661 (2d Dep’t 1977) (recognizable depiction in commercial of plaintiffs style of conducting “Auld Lang Syne” in New Year’s Eve setting held not actionable when plaintiff’s name not used and impersonator did not resemble plaintiff). Plaintiff here must therefore demonstrate, inter alia, that the advertisement in question appropriates his “portrait or picture.”
In addition to the statutory right to privacy, plaintiff in this case argues that defendants have violated his “right of publicity,” an analogous right recognized in the common law of many jurisdictions. Indeed, until recently, some federal courts assumed that the New York courts would recognize such a common law right independent of that protected by the Civil Rights Law. See, e.g., Lerman v. Flynt Dist. Co., Inc., 745 F.2d 123, 133-34 (2d Cir.1984); Ali v. Playgirl, 447 F.Supp. 723, 728 (S.D.N.Y.1978). The elements of the cause of action were deemed to be essentially the same as those provided in the privacy statute, with the additional requirement that the plaintiff have developed a property interest with a monetary value in his or her name or face. Lerman, 745 F.2d at 134. Unlike the Civil Rights Law provision, which is primarily designed to compensate for the hurt feelings of private people who find their identities usurped for another’s commercial gain, the right of publicity protects this property interest of the celebrity in his or her public identity. Brinkley v. Casablancas, 80 A.D.2d 428, 438 N.Y.S.2d 1004, 1011 (1st Dep’t 1981). It is primarily this interest which Woody Allen seeks to vindicate in the case at bar.
The New York Court of Appeals, however, recently has held that no separate common law cause of action to vindicate the right of publicity exists in New York. Stephano v. News Group Publications, Inc., 64 N.Y.2d 174, 485 N.Y.S.2d 220, 474 N.E.2d 580 (1984) The court held, in essence, that the “right of publicity” was merely a misnomer for the privacy interest protected by the Civil Rights Law, as applied to public figures.
By its terms, the statute applies to any use of a person’s picture or portrait for advertising or trade purposes whenever the defendant has not obtained the person’s written consent to do so____ Since the “right of publicity” is encompassed under the Civil Rights Law as an aspect of the right of privacy, which, as noted, is exclusively statutory in this state, the plaintiff cannot claim an independent common law right of publicity.
485 N.Y.S.2d at 224, 474 N.E.2d 580.
In view of the Court of Appeals’ unambiguous holding in Stephano, plaintiff moves to amend his complaint to delete references to the common law as a source for the right of publicity. Plaintiff observes that the elements of his cause of action are unchanged, and that all of his theories are based on the same series of transactions and occurrences with which all parties are fully familiar. Defendants make no opposition to this motion, and the court grants it pursuant to the liberal amendment provisions of Fed.R.Civ.P. 15(a).
This court must also follow Stephano, and will treat plaintiff’s causes of action for privacy and publicity together under the general rubric of privacy. In this connection, the court notes that the only element under the pre-Stephano cases which would distinguish the two theories — the re *622 quirement that plaintiff have cultivated a valuable property interest in his public image — is without question satisfied in this case.
In examining the undisputed facts of this case with reference to plaintiff’s summary judgment motion, it is immediately clear that two of the three prongs of the Civil Rights Law are satisfied. First, there is no question that the photograph said to be of plaintiff was used for commercial purposes, since it appeared in a magazine advertisement soliciting business for National Video franchisees. Second, defendants do not dispute that plaintiff never gave his consent to the use of the photograph, either orally or in writing. It therefore appears that the only element of plaintiff’s case over which there is any serious dispute is whether the photograph is a “portrait or picture” of plaintiff. 4
Plaintiff argues that Boroff’s physical resemblance to him, when viewed in conjunction with the undeniable attempt to evoke plaintiff’s image through the selection of props and poses, makes the photograph in question a “portrait or picture” of plaintiff as a matter of law. Plaintiff notes that it is not necessary that all persons seeing the photograph actually identify him, only that he be identifiable from the photograph. Cohen v. Herbal Concepts, Inc., 63 N.Y.2d 379, 482 N.Y.S.2d 457, 459, 472 N.E.2d 307 (1984); Negri v. Schering Corp., 333 F.Supp. 101, 104 (S.D.N.Y.1971). Plaintiff contends that it is beyond cavil that some people will recognize him in this photograph. The cited cases, however, involved photographs which were not disputed to be of the plaintiffs; the only question was whether the pictures were too old or too obscure to be recognizable. They do not help us answer the more basic question of whether the photograph in the case at bar is, in fact, a “picture” or “portrait” of plaintiff.
More helpful are a line of cases holding that any recognizable likeness, not just an actual photograph, may qualify as a “portrait or picture.” See, e.g., Ali v. Playgirl, 447 F.Supp. 723, 726 (S.D.N.Y.1978) (“clearly recognizable” drawing of plaintiff Muhammad Ali portrayed as boxer in ring, captioned “The Greatest,” constitutes “portrait or picture”); Young v. Greneker Studios, Inc., 175 Misc. 1027, 26 N.Y.S.2d 357, 358 (Sup.Ct.N.Y.Co.1941) (manikin made in plaintiff’s likeness is “portrait or picture” within statute).
Therefore, if defendants had used, for example, a clearly recognizable painting or cartoon of plaintiff, it would certainly constitute a “portrait or picture” within the meaning of the statute. The case of a look-alike, however, is more problematic. A painting, drawing or manikin has no existence other than as a representation of something or someone; if the subject is recognizable, then the work is a “portrait.” Defendant Boroff, however, is not a manikin. He is a person with a right to his own identity and his own face. Plaintiff’s privacy claim therefore requires the court to answer the almost metaphysical question of when one person’s face, presented in a certain context, becomes, as a matter of law, the face of another.
This question is not merely theoretical. The use in an advertisement of a drawing, which has no other purpose than to represent its subject, must give rise to a cause of action under the Civil Rights Law, because it raises the obvious implication that its subject has endorsed or is otherwise involved with the product being advertised. There is no question that this amounts to an appropriation of another’s likeness for commercial advantage.
*623 A living and breathing actor, however, has the right to exploit his or her own face for commercial gain. This right is itself protected by the Civil Rights Law. The privacy law does not prohibit one from evoking certain aspects of another’s personality, Lombardo, but it does prohibit one from actually representing oneself as another person. Binns v. Vitagraph Co. of America. 210 N.Y. 51, 57, 103 N.E. 1108 (1913). The look-alike situation falls somewhere in between and therefore presents a difficult question.
The court is aware of only one case on point. In Onassis v. Christian Dior N. Y. Inc., 122 Misc.2d 603, 472 N.Y.S.2d 254 (S.Ct.N.Y.Co.1983), plaintiff Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis won an injunction against an advertisement featuring a model who was made up to look like her. The advertisement was part of a series, which appeared for several weeks in major fashion and news magazines, featuring a trio of risque sophisticates known as “The Diors.” The advertisements followed the developing relationship (and stunning Christian Dior wardrobes) of the imaginary menage a trois, including, in one week’s installment, the marriage of two of the trio in a stylish, “legendary private affair.” Onassis, 472 N.Y.S.2d at 257. Appearing among the guests at the soiree, which was portrayed in one large photograph, were several actual celebrities — actress Ruth Gordon, television personality Gene Shalit, and actress/model Shari Belefonte — and a Jacqueline Onassis double provided, as in this case, by Ron Smith’s Celebrity LookAlikes. Id.
The Onassis court found that the advertisement violated plaintiff’s rights under section 51 of the Civil Rights Law. The court held that an exact duplication of plaintiff was not necessary to make out a cause of action under the statute, so long as the overall impression created clearly was that plaintiff had herself appeared in the advertisement. 472 N.Y.S.2d at 262.
We are dealing here with actuality and appearance, where illusion often heightens reality and all is not quite what it seems. Is the illusionist to be free to step aside, having reaped the benefits of his creation, and be permitted to disclaim the very impression he sought to create? If we were to permit it, we would be sanctioning an obvious loophole to evade the statute. If a person is unwilling to give his or her endorsement to help sell a product, either at an offered price or any price, no matter — hire a double and the same effect is achieved.
The “illusion” created in Onassis was that plaintiff had actually appeared in the advertisement. Therefore, the court’s holding was consistent with the long-standing requirement under section 51 that the commercial use complained of amount to a “portrait or picture” of an individual, not merely the suggestion of some aspect of a person’s public persona. In other words, in the context of the advertisement, the lookalike’s face was, as a matter of law, a portrait of Jacqueline Onassis. Important to the court’s holding was the unusually realistic tone of the advertisement.
The juxtaposition of the counterfeit figure just behind the real-life figures of a veteran actress, a TV personality, and a well-known model lends the whole ensemble an air of verisimilitude and accentuates the grievance, for it imparts an aura of authenticity to the trumped up tableau.
The question of whether a photograph presents a recognizable likeness of a person is ordinarily one for the jury. Cohen v. Herbal Concepts, Inc., 63 N.Y.2d 379, 384, 482 N.Y.S.2d 457, 459, 472 N.E.2d 307 (1984). When, as in Onassis, the lookalike seems indistinguishable from the real person and the context of the advertisement clearly implies that he or she is the real celebrity, a court may hold as a matter of law that the look-alike’s face is a “portrait or picture” of plaintiff. Onassis presented an unusual factual setting, in which the mixture of fantasy and reality suggested almost unavoidably the actual presence of the real-life celebrity. In order *624 for the court to reach the same conclusion in the present case, it must conclude on the undisputed facts that the photograph in question similarly creates, as a matter of law, the illusion of Woody Allen’s actual presence in the advertisement.
It is not disputed here that in this photograph defendant Boroff is meant to look like Woody Allen. The pose, expression, and props all support the suggestion. However, the question before the court is not whether some, or even most, people will be reminded of plaintiff when they see this advertisement. In order to find that the photograph contains plaintiff’s “portrait or picture,” the court would have to conclude that most persons who could identify an actual photograph of plaintiff would be likely to think that this was actually his picture. This standard is necessary since we deal not with the question of whether an undisputed picture of plaintiff is recognizable to some, but whether an undisputed picture of defendant Boroff should be regarded, as a matter of law, to be a portrait or picture of plaintiff.
The court notes several factors that might militate against summary adjudication of this question. First, there are several physical differences between plaintiff’s face and that of defendant Boroff. Defendant's photo shows larger eyebrows, a wider face, and more uneven complexion than plaintiffs, and somewhat different glasses than plaintiff generally wears.
Moreover, the hair style and expression, while characteristic of the endearing “schlemiel” embodied by plaintiff in his earlier comic works, are out of step with plaintiffs post-“Annie Hall” appearance and the serious image and somber mien that he has projected in recent years. While this distinction would be of no moment if defendants had appropriated an actual photograph of plaintiff from 15 years ago such as those submitted by plaintiff for comparison, see Negri v. Sobering Corp., 333 F.Supp. 101 (S.D.N.Y.1971), it is relevant to the question of whether the audience of movie watchers at whom this advertisement was aimed would conclude that plaintiff had actually appeared in the 1984 advertisement.
Finally, unlike in Onassis, where no other plausible interpretation was offered for the presence of the Jacqueline Onassis figure behind the real Ruth Gordon, et al., here defendants argue for a view of the advertisement consistent with the presence of a look-alike who is not thought to be Woody Allen himself. The court has some doubts as to the ultimate pursuasiveness of this interpretation. We are unable to conclude, however, that no reasonable jury could find that others would so interpret the advertisement, or at least recognize it to contain a look-alike, particularly in light of the distinctions noted above. Therefore, while the court finds that the advertisement at bar clearly makes reference to plaintiff, it hesitates to conclude that the photograph is, as a matter of law, plaintiff’s portrait or picture.
The foregoing discussion may be helpful in focusing the novel questions presented by this case. The court feels, however, that the facts before it are better addressed in the context of an alleged Lanham Act violation. The substantive standard of likelihood of confusion provided by the Lanham Act, discussed below, seems more appropriate than the somewhat strained construction required here under section 51. 5
Moreover, the relief available to plaintiff is virtually identical under either theory. Normally, under section 51, plaintiff would be entitled to an absolute injunction against *625 the use of his picture, regardless of any perceived endorsement or lack thereof. On the unusual facts of this case, however, plaintiff would be limited to a prohibition against defendants representing that Boroff is actually Woody Allen. As addressed below, plaintiff may obtain essentially the same relief under the Lanham Act, and the court concludes that plaintiff is entitled to summary judgment on his Lanham Act claim.
Therefore, the court finds it unnecessary to resolve plaintiffs privacy claim. Defendants’ motion for summary judgment on the privacy claim therefore also need not be reached, except to the extent that similar counter-arguments are offered in the context of the Lanham Act discussion below.
Lanham Act Claim
Plaintiff seeks summary judgment on his claim under section 43(a) of the federal Lanham Act, 15 U.S.C.A. section 1125(a) (West 1982) (“the Act”), which prohibits false descriptions of products or their origins. The Act is more than a mere codification of common law trademark infringement. Its purpose is “the protection of consumers and competitors from a wide variety of misrepresentations of products and services in commerce. In enacting the section, Congress in effect created a new federal statutory tort. The section is clearly remedial and should be broadly construed.” CBS, Inc. v. Springboard International Records, 429 F.Supp. 563, 566 (S.D.N.Y.1976) (citations omitted) (hereinafter cited as Springboard). See also Warner Bros., Inc. v. Gay Toys, Inc., 658 F.2d 76, 79 (2d Cir.1981); Yameta Co. v. Capital Records, Inc., 279 F.Supp. 582, 586 (S.D.N.Y.), rev’d on other grounds, 393 F.2d 91 (2d Cir.1968).
The Act has therefore been held to apply to situations that would not qualify formally as trademark infringement, but that involve unfair competitive practices resulting in actual or potential deception. SK & F, Co. v. Premo Pharmaceutical Laboratories, Inc., 625 F.2d 1055, 1065 (3d Cir.1980). See also Springboard, 429 F.Supp. at 567. To make out a cause of action under the Act, plaintiff must establish three elements: 1) involvement of goods or services, 2) effect on interstate commerce, and 3) a false designation of origin or false description of the goods or services. Id. at 566.
Application of the act is limited, however, to potential deception which threatens economic interests analogous to those protected by trademark law. Ives Laboratories, Inc. v. Darby Drug Co., Inc., 601 F.2d 631, 641-42 (2d Cir.1979). One such interest is that of the public to be free from harmful deception. Another interest, which provides plaintiff here with standing, is that of the “trademark” holder in the value of his distinctive mark. As the Supreme Court, per Justice Frankfurter, has said:
The protection of trade-marks is the law’s recognition of the psychological value of symbols. If it is true that we live by symbols, it is no less true that we purchase goods by them. A trade-mark is a merchandising shortcut which induces a purchaser to select what he wants, or what he has been led to believe he wants. The owner of the mark exploits this human propensity by making every effort to impregnate the atmosphere of the market with the drawing power of a congenial symbol. Whatever the means employed, the aim is the same —to convey through the mark, in the minds of the potential customer, the desirability of the comodity upon which it appears. Once this is attained, the trademark owner has something of value. If another poaches upon the commercial magnetism of the symbol he has created, the owner can obtain legal redress.
Mishawaka Rubber & Woolen Mfg. Co. v. S.S. Kresge Co.,