Hampton v. Dillard Department Stores, Inc.

Paula Darlene Hampton filed suit against Dillard Department Stores, Inc. (Dillard’s), claiming that the company had unlawfully interfered with her right to make and enforce a contract in violation of 42 U.S.C. § 1981. A jury awarded her compensatory and punitive damages based on its findings that (1) Ms. Hampton “was entitled to a free cologne sample as a benefit or privilege of her purchase on *1099April 5, 1996,” Aplt’s App. vol. 1, at 147 (verdict form from phase one of trial); (2) Dillard’s “intentionally interfered with [her] ability to receive a free cologne sample,” id.; and (3) Ms. Hampton’s “race was a motivating factor in [Dillard’s] conduct on April 5, 1996.” Id. at 160 (verdict form from phase two of trial). Dillard’s thereafter filed a motion for judgment as a matter of law, which the district court denied. Dillard’s now appeals, raising various objections to the district court’s denial of its motion.

We review the district court’s denial of Dillard’s motion for judgment as a matter of law de novo, “applying the same legal standard as the district court.” Brown v. Gray, 227 F.3d 1278, 1285 (10th Cir.2000). A party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law “only if the evidence points but one way and is susceptible to no reasonable inferences which may support the opposing party’s position.” Tyler v. RE/MAX Mountain States, Inc., 232 F.3d 808, 812 (10th Cir.2000). It is important to note that, “[i]n reviewing the record, we ivill not weigh evidence, judge witness credibility, or challenge the factual conclusions of the jury. Judgment as a matter of law is appropriate [only] if there is no legally sufficient evidentiary basis for a claim under the controlling law. We consider the evidence, and any inferences drawn therefrom, in favor of the non-moving party.” Brown, 227 F.3d at 1285 (emphasis added and internal quotation marks omitted).

Thus, Dillard’s has a high hurdle to overcome. The focus of Dillard’s appeal is on three questions: (1) whether the fragrance coupon was in fact a benefit of Ms. Hampton’s purchase; (2) whether there was indeed intentional interference with Ms. Hampton’s redemption of the coupon; and (3) whether the interference was in the end based on racial discrimination. We agree with the district court that these are questions of fact, not law, see, e.g., Hampton v. Dillard Dep’t Stores, Inc., 18 F.Supp.2d 1256, 1265 (D.Kan.1998) (noting that the issue of discrimination is a question of fact), and the jury made explicit findings as to each. On appellate review, we cannot challenge the jury’s findings of fact; instead, we may only ask whether there was a “legally sufficient evi-dentiary basis for a reasonable jury to find for [Ms. Hampton]” on each fact. Fed. R.Civ.P. 50(a). Because there was such a basis, we must affirm the district court’s order.

I. BACKGROUND

The following material facts are taken from the district court’s orders below and from the trial transcript. These facts are undisputed, or where disputed, are taken, as we are required to take them, in the light most favorable to Ms. Hampton. We shall first briefly summarize the facts in this case, while we reserve a more detañed description of the evidence for later discussion of specific issues raised by the parties.

On April 5, 1996, Ms. Hampton and her niece, Demetria Cooper, both African Americans, were shopping for an Easter outfit for Ms. Cooper’s one-year-old son in the Dillard’s children’s department in Overland Park, Kansas. The plaintiffs had four chfidren with them: Ms. Cooper’s son, Ms. Hampton’s eight-month-old and seven-year-old daughters, and her elder daughter’s friend.

Shortly after they entered the store, Tom Wilson, a Dülard’s security officer, noticed them. He observed them for more than fifteen minutes. Mr. Wilson testified that he paid close attention to the party, in part, because they had a stroller with them, because Ms. Cooper had a rolled-up dark cloth item in her hand, and because *1100Ms. Cooper kept looking up at the ceiling and glancing around, as if to check to see if she was being watched. Because his suspicions were aroused, he asked fellow employee Pam Fitzgerel to continue the surveillance in a fitting room in the children’s department, where the plaintiffs were trying clothing on Ms. Cooper’s one-year-old son. At trial, Ms. Fitzgerel testified that Ms. Cooper was holding a rolled-up cloth item in the fitting room; that she later saw an item under Ms. Cooper’s jacket; and that, believing the item to be store merchandise, she contacted Mr. Wilson and told him that she was positive that Ms. Cooper had put something under her coat.

The group left the fitting room and Ms. Hampton proceeded to purchase an outfit for Ms. Cooper’s son from the salesclerk in the children’s department. When she did so, the sales associate gave Ms. Hampton and Ms. Cooper each a coupon that was redeemable at the fragrance counter for cologne samples. The shopping group then proceeded on to the fragrance counter, which is located where the Dillard’s store ends and opens into the Oak Park Mall, to redeem their fragrance coupons.

While the women were in the process of redeeming their coupons and while the women were in a conversation with fragrance consultant Betty Chouteau, Mr. Wilson interrupted them. Referring to Ms. Cooper, he advised Ms. Hampton that “the ... black female had been observed placing something in her coat.” Aple’s Supp.App. at 121 (Dillard’s Security Report, dated Apr. 5, 1996). He asked to look inside the Dillard’s bag carried by Ms. Hampton, took the bag, and emptied the contents on the fragrance counter. Mr. Wilson checked the items against the receipt and determined that they corresponded. Ms. Chouteau testified that she perceived it to be “a rather embarrassing situation” for the women and, upon Mr. Wilson’s intervention, she “turned and started talking to other people.” Aplt’s App. vol. 3, at 624 (testimony of Ms. Chou-teau).

While Mr. Wilson was matching up items to the receipt, Ms. Hampton became visibly upset and told Mr. Wilson that, as a regular customer of Dillard’s, she did not appreciate being accused of shoplifting and she did not deserve to be treated this way. Mr. Wilson told her to calm down or he would call the Overland Park police and have her removed from the store. Ms. Hampton asked Mr. Wilson his name and the location of the customer service counter. She then proceeded to the customer service counter and had no more contact with Mr. Wilson. The encounter with Mr. Wilson lasted approximately five minutes. Ms. Hampton and Ms. Cooper subsequently filed suit against Dillard’s, alleging false imprisonment under Kansas law and a violation of 42 U.S.C. § 1981.

A. Procedural History

Ms. Hampton and Ms. Cooper based their state tort claims on their detention by Mr. Wilson. They based their § 1981 claims on the observation and detention by Mr. Wilson and on the store’s disparate security practices of “arresting or detaining African-American shoppers at a significantly greater rate than it arrests or detains white shoppers.” Aplt’s App. vol. 1, at 5 (complaint). They alleged that their “detention was a part of this pattern or practice.” Id.

Following the close of discovery, Dillard’s moved for summary judgment on both claims. The district court granted Dillard’s summary judgment on the state tort claims and on most of the § 1981 claims. The only § 1981 claim that the district court allowed to proceed to trial was the claim that Dillard’s interfered with *1101the plaintiffs’ ability to redeem the perfume sample.

The district court noted, however, that whether Ms. Cooper’s coupon claim was actionable remained in doubt, as the coupon was not received by Ms. Cooper as the result of a purchase but as a benefit of Ms. Hampton’s purchase. The court ordered Ms. Cooper to show cause why her claims should survive in the absence of any purchase made by her. The court subsequently rejected Ms. Cooper’s contention that, as a third-party beneficiary of the sale to Ms. Hampton, her § 1981 claim should survive, and the court in turn dismissed Ms. Cooper’s remaining claim on the day before trial.

Noting that our § 1981 jurisprudence requires that the action interfered with must be based on a contract, see Phelps v. Wichita Eagle-Beacon, 886 F.2d 1262, 1267 (10th Cir.1989) (requiring actual loss of a contract interest for a § 1981 claim for interference with the right to make and enforce a contract),1 the district court decided to bifurcate the trial. In the first phase, the jury was to determine whether the fragrance sample was a benefit of Ms. Hampton’s purchase from Dillard’s and whether Dillard’s intentionally interfered with the redemption of the coupon. If the jury found the coupon was a benefit of purchase and that Dillard’s intentionally interfered, it would proceed to phase two, in which it would determine whether the store’s intentional interference was racially motivated. The jury found for Ms. Hampton on all of the issues presented in both phases, and awarded her $56,000 in compensatory damages and $1.1 million in punitive damages. The district court entered judgment in accordance with the verdict and rejected Dillard’s Motion for Judgment as a Matter of Law, or Alternatively for a New Trial or Remittitur.

Dillard’s now appeals the district court’s denial of its motion for judgment as a matter of law and claims that (1) it is entitled to judgment on Ms. Hampton’s § 1981 claim because the coupon was not a contract; (2) if the coupon was a contract, there was no interference with a contract interest; and (3) there was no interference with a contract interest based on racial discrimination. Dillard’s also appeals the district court’s denial of a new trial and contends it was unfairly prejudiced by (1) various instructional errors that misled the jury and (2) various evidentiary admissions and exclusions that were in error. Finally, Dillard’s challenges the award of compensatory and punitive damages and the award of attorney’s fees.

In addition, Ms. Cooper appeals the district court’s dismissal of her § 1981 claim and her state law claim. The Lawyer’s Committee for Civil Rights has filed an amicus curiae brief in support of (1) affir-mance of the verdict and judgment in favor of Ms. Hampton and (2) reversal of the dismissal of Ms. Cooper’s claims. Beginning with the defendant’s appeal, we shall review each contention in turn.

II. CASE NOS. 98-3011, -3261 ANALYSIS

A. Ms. Hampton’s § 1981 Claim

1. Elements of a § 1981 Claim

With respect to 42 U.S.C. § 1981, to establish a prima facie case of discrimination under § 1981,2 the plaintiff must show:

*1102(1) that the plaintiff is a member of a protected class;

(2) that the defendant had the intent to discriminate on the basis of race; and

(3) that the discrimination interfered with a protected activity as defined in § 1981.

See Reynolds v. School Dist. No. 1, Denver, Colo., 69 F.3d 1523, 1532 (10th Cir.1995) (“Section 1981 prohibits racial discrimination in 'the making, performance, modification, and termination of contracts, and the enjoyment of all benefits, privileges, terms, and conditions of the contractual relationship.’ ”) (quoting 42 U.S.C. § 1981); see also Bellows v. Amoco Oil Co., 118 F.3d 268, 274 (5th Cir.1997) (listing three elements); Morris v. Office Max, Inc., 89 F.3d 411, 413 (7th Cir.1996) (applying elements to retail transaction'). These elements “are flexible and are not to be applied rigidly.” Cone v. Longmont United Hosp. Ass’n, 14 F.3d 526, 530 n. 2 (10th Cir.1994).

Typically, most litigation involving § 1981 claims has emanated from the right to make and enforce employment contracts. Cf. S.Rep. No. 101-315 (1990) (noting that § 1981 was a response to “a series of recent decisions addressing employment discrimination claims” where “the Supreme Court cut back dramatically on the scope and effectiveness of civil rights protections” and that the purpose of the act is “to respond to the Supreme Court’s recent decisions by restoring the civil rights protections that were dramatically limited by those decisions”); Morris, 89 F.3d at 413 (noting predominance of § 1981 claims addressing employment discrimination). However, the statute has been applied to discrimination claims arising in the retail sector and restaurant industry, when a contract has been established. See, e.g., Bobbitt v. Rage, Inc., 19 F.Supp.2d 512, 518-20 (W.D.N.C.1998) (allowing action to proceed where plaintiffs, who were forced to prepay for food in pizza restaurant, demonstrated that the restaurant altered a fundamental characteristic of the food service based on race); Washington v. Duty Free Shoppers, Ltd., 710 F.Supp. 1288, 1289-90 (N.D.Cal.1988) (denying summary judgment to defendant where African American were customers told they needed to show a passport and airline tickets before shopping for duty-paid goods, while other customers were not required to do so).

Applying the prima facie elements to the factual setting of this case, the district court instructed the jury that the plaintiff must establish:

First, that plaintiff was entitled to a free cologne sample as a benefit or privilege of her purchase on April 5,1996;

Second, that defendant intentionally interfered with plaintiffs right to enjoy the benefits and privileges of that purchase; and

*1103Third that plaintiffs race was a motivating factor in defendant’s conduct. Aplt’s App. at 151 (Instruction 18). We will discuss each of these elements, beginning with whether there was interference with a contract.

A The Coupon as Part of the Purchase Contract

Dillard’s appeals the district court’s denial of its motion for judgment as a matter of law, first contending that the coupon was not a contract. We review the district court’s denial of a motion for judgment as a matter of law de novo, applying the same legal standard as the district court. See Deters v. Equifax Credit Info. Servs., Inc., 202 F.3d 1262, 1268 (10th Cir.2000). But the legal standard that we and the district court must use is, as noted earlier, difficult for the movant: a party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law only if the “evidence points but one way and is susceptible to no reasonable inferences supporting the party opposing the motion.” Id. (internal quotation marks omitted). In reviewing the record, we “will not weigh evidence, judge witness credibility, or challenge the factual conclusions of the jury.” Id. Judgment as a matter of law is only appropriate if there is no legally sufficient evidentiary basis for a claim under the controlling law. See id. We consider the evidence, and any inferences drawn therefrom, in favor of the nonmoving party. See id.

Dillard’s challenges whether the fragrance coupon was a benefit of Ms. Hampton’s contractual relationship for the purchase of children’s wear. According to Dillard’s, the coupons were promotional invitations, handed out indiscriminately and not exclusively in connection with a purchase. See Aplt’s App. vol. 3, at 622, 648, 650, 655, 657. Dillard’s maintains that the coupon was a gift and that it was never intended to confer a right upon its recipient. In addition, Dillard’s points to Ms. Cooper’s receipt of a coupon as evidence that a purchase was not required to receive the gift.

In rebuttal, Ms. Hampton argues that we must be mindful of the jury’s appraisal of the credibility of the witnesses as well as the jury’s resolution of factual issues. See United Int’l Holdings, Inc. v. Wharf (Holdings) Ltd., 210 F.3d 1207, 1227 (10th Cir.2000) (noting “[t]he jury has the exclusive function of appraising credibility, determining the weight to be given to the testimony, drawing inferences from the facts established, resolving conflicts in the evidence, and reaching ultimate conclusions of fact”) (internal quotation marks omitted). She and Ms. Cooper testified that, during the time they shopped at the Dillard’s store (over an hour), they never saw anyone receive a coupon and saw no one distributing the coupons. The first they saw of the coupons was after Ms. Hampton had purchased merchandise. Furthermore, the sales representative from the fragrance company, Ms. Chou-teau, testified that the purpose of the promotional coupon, handed out after a customer of Dillard’s had made a purchase, was “to entice the shoppers to come to the fragrance [counter] so that we could talk to them about our product.” Aplt’s App. vol. 3, at 622 (testimony of Ms. Chouteau). All such promotions were supported and agreed to by Dillard’s. See id. at 663 (testimony of Ms. Dirks, Dillard’s operations manager). Finally, Ms. Cooper testified that, upon receipt of the coupons, the children’s wear salesperson directed her shopping party toward the appropriate fragrance counter.

Ms. Hampton contends that she performed the steps necessary to act in compliance with the terms and conditions of the offer from Dillard’s: she completed a *1104purchase and presented the coupon to the fragrance counter. The performance of these acts, she argues, either constitutes an acceptance or entitles her to “the enjoyment of all benefits, privileges, terms, and conditions of the contractual relationship,” as the statute says.

Clearly, the purpose of the statute is to “make it clear that the right to ‘make and enforce contracts’ free from race discrimination [is] protected by section 1981.” S.Rep. No. 101-315 (1990). Furthermore, the list set forth in subsection (b) of the statute, which gives examples of what might constitute the “making” or “enforcing” of a under the Act, “is intended to be illustrative rather than exhaustive.” Id. We have clarified “that a § 1981 claim for interference with the right to make and enforce a contract must involve the actual loss of a contract interest, not merely the possible loss of future contract opportunities.” See Wesley, 42 F.Supp.2d at 1200 (citing Phelps, 886 F.2d at 1267).

In the context of a retail transaction, this court has not had the opportunity to address or apply subsection (b). See id. at 1200 & n. 8 (citing Morris, 89 F.3d at 413). There is even less guidance as to what constitutes a contract for the purposes of a § 1981 claim involving a retail transaction, and as such, we are authorized to look to common law. See 42 U.S.C. § 1988(a).

Section 45 of the Restatement (Second) of Contracts provides illumination on the common law of contracts regarding an invitation to accept an offer by performance:

(1) Where an offer invites an offeree to accept by rendering a performance and does not invite a promissory acceptance, an option contract is created when the offeree tenders or begins the invited performance or tenders a beginning of it.

(2) The offeror’s duty of performance under any option contract so created is conditional on completion or tender of the invited performance in accordance with the terms of the offer.

Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 45 (1981). The Comment to § 45 further provides that

[t]his Section is limited to cases where the offer does not invite a promissory acceptance. Such an offer has often been referred to as an “offer for a unilateral contract.” Typical illustrations are found in offers of rewards or prizes....

Id. § 45 cmt. a; see also Brown v. State, 230 Wis.2d 355, 602 N.W.2d 79, 88 (Ct.App.1999) (noting that “performance by the entrant of the act requested by the sponsor—there, returning an eligibility card—constitutes an acceptance of an offer and forms a binding contract;” also noting that nearly all jurisdictions have adopted the rule “that contract law governs the sponsor-contestant relationship”) (internal quotation marks omitted). Here, Dillard’s offered a variance of an option or unilateral contract to Ms. Hampton, and she completed the invited performance in accordance with the terms of the offer. See Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 45; cf. Perry v. Burger King Corp., 924 F.Supp. 548, 552 (S.D.N.Y.1996) (denying motion to dismiss where customer finished meal and sought to use restaurant’s restroom facilities; noting that plaintiff may be “considered to have contracted for food and use of the bathroom” as benefit of contractual relationship).

Dillard’s also contends that Ms. Cooper’s receipt of a coupon undermines the jury’s finding that the coupon was a benefit of Ms. Hampton’s purchase contract. We disagree. Ms. Cooper, whose child re*1105ceived the clothing, was a part of the shopping party, and perhaps the store clerk thought Ms. Cooper too should receive the coupon. The jury weighed testimony regarding the receipt of such coupons by nonpurchasing customers and determined that the evidence weighed in favor of Ms. Hampton, i e., the coupon was a benefit of Ms. Hampton’s contractual relationship with Dillard’s.

With regard to the purpose of the coupon, Ms. Chouteau testified that it served “to entice the shoppers” to sample her company’s products. Aplt’s App. vol. 3, at 622 (testimony of Ms. Chouteau). She also stated that coupon holders were “ ‘entitled to’ ” a fragrance sample. Id. at 625. In addition, we note that the benefit ran to Dillard’s as well: to sample those products, the customer would traverse the store, perhaps eyeing other merchandise for purchase from Dillard’s. The jury’s credibility determinations and conclusion that the coupon conferred a right to a fragrance sample as a benefit of a contractual relationship are not against the weight of the evidence as a matter of law. Whether or not this providing of the sample in hopes that a customer would walk back through the store and purchase cologne or another item was itself an option or unilateral contract, we cannot say that the jury’s conclusion that the coupon was a benefit of Ms. Hampton’s contract with Dillard’s was unreasonable.

3. Intentional Interference with Redemption of the Coupon

Dillard’s also sought judgment as a matter of law because Ms. Hampton suffered no actual loss of a contract right or interest. See Phelps, 886 F.2d at 1267 (emphasizing that actual loss is protected by § 1981, not possible loss); Morris, 89 F.3d at 414-15 (“A claim for interference with the right to make and enforce a contract must allege the actual loss of a contract interest, not merely the possible loss of future contract opportunities.”) (citing Phelps, 886 F.2d at 1267). Dillard’s contends that Ms. Hampton was not denied a service or product, as required by Morris. At trial, Mr. Wilson testified on behalf of Dillard’s that he stopped the women while they were approaching the store’s exit and that he did not believe them to be exchanging their coupons for fragrance samples.

A recollection of Mr. Wilson’s testimony may explain why the jury and district court reached the decisions that they did:

Q: What did you think Paula Hampton and Demetria Cooper were doing when you approached them?

A: They were getting ready to exit the Dillard’s store to go out into the mall.

Q: Okay. Did you notice that they were speaking with a cosmetic associate or a fragrance consultant when you approached the two ladies?

A: No, I did not.

Q: Did you knowingly prevent Paula Hampton from receiving a free cologne sample?

A: No, I did not.

Aplt’s App. vol. 3. at 634 (testimony of Mr. Wilson). Thus, we have a trained security guard claiming that he did not notice that the women were redeeming a coupon. Indeed, he did not notice that they were shopping or even talking with a salesperson.

This testimony was directly contested by Ms. Hampton and Ms. Cooper. The jury could have resolved this conflict based on their evidence, but the silver bullet may have been the testimony of Ms. Chouteau, the perfume consultant:

Q: [D]o you recall Paula Hampton and Demetria Cooper and their children coming up to the cosmetics counter?

*1106A: I do.

Q: Do you recall that their discussion with you was interrupted by a Dillard’s security officer?

A: Yes, I do.

Q: When [0]fficer Wilson came up and spoke, what did you do then?

A: Well, because it was a rather embarrassing situation and because I was very busy with a lot of other things going on, I turned and started talking to other people at the time with my back to them.

Q: With your back to whom?

A: To the officer and Paula. I mean, I just felt like it was an embarrassing situation for them and I felt uncomfortable, you know, watching, so I turned and went ahead and did what I was supposed to be doing.

Aplt’s App. vol. 3 at 621-22, 624 (testimony of Ms. Chouteau).

Once again, the evidence in the record is sufficient for the jury to determine that Mr. Wilson deliberately interfered with Ms. Hampton’s redemption of the coupon and that she suffered an actual loss of a privilege of her contract because of this interruption. Ms. Hampton testified that after he approached her and identified himself while she was at the fragrance counter, Mr. Wilson “took [her shopping] bag, dumped the contents out on the counter, and compared them to the receipt that was in the bag, and then he shoved everything back at [her].” Aplt’s App. vol. 3, at 830 (testimony of Ms. Hampton). After this, Ms. Hampton told Mr. Wilson she was shocked to be accused of shoplifting, and Mr. Wilson subsequently threatened to have her removed from the store. See id. at 830-32.

The jury concluded that, had there been no interference, Ms. Hampton would have received the service of [her] redemption of the coupon. As the district court noted, the “plaintiff produced legally sufficient evidence that Wilson intentionally interfered with the redemption of the coupon.” Hampton, 18 F.Supp.2d at 1264. We do not question the jury’s credibility determinations, and we cannot say that as a matter of law the jury’s conclusion is incorrect. See Deters, 202 F.3d at 1268 (“In our review of the record, we will not weigh evidence, judge witness credibility, or challenge the factual conclusions of the jury.”)

The dissent notes that Mr. Wilson’s testimony does not suggest he had the subjective intent to prevent the redemption of the coupon.3 We agree, but note that § 1981 protects enjoyment of the benefits of a contract from any impairment, so long as the impairment arises from intentional discrimination. See 42 U.S.C. § 1981(a) (“All persons ... shall have the same right ... to make and enforce contracts ... as is enjoyed by white citizens.... ”). Thus the proper fo*1107cus is on whether the defendant had the intent to discriminate on the basis of race, and whether that discrimination interfered with the making or enforcing of a contract. See Bellows v. Amoco Oil Co., 118 F.3d at 274 (listing three elements of prima facie case). We cannot say as a matter of law that the jury’s conclusion that Dillard’s had the intent to discriminate on the basis of race was incorrect.

Even under the dissent’s suggestion that subjective intent to interfere with a contract is required, a reasonable juror could find a legally sufficient eviden-tiary basis to support such a finding, if it disbelieved Mr. Wilson’s testimony. As to the issue of Dillard’s intent, the court correctly instructed the jury during the first phase of the trial that Ms. Hampton had the burden of proving by a preponderance of the evidence that “defendant [i.e. Dillard’s] intentionally prevented her from redeeming [the] coupon.... ” Aplt’s App. vol. 1, at 139 (Instruction 10). We note that, because “[t]he issue of intent ... is one that is often not susceptible to direct proof,” the jury correctly “considered] all conflicting inferences” that the circumstantial evidence presented. See Washington, 710 F.Supp. at 1289 (citing Rogers v. Lodge, 458 U.S. 613, 618, 102 S.Ct. 3272, 73 L.Ed.2d 1012 (1982)). The jury weighed the conflicting testimony and made its credibility determinations, apparently in favor of Ms. Chouteau, who made it clear that Mr. Wilson interrupted an ongoing transaction. As discussed below, the jury concluded there was sufficient indirect evidence of a discriminatory motive on the part of Dillard’s and Mr. Wilson. As such, we cannot say that “the evidence points but one way, and is susceptible to no reasonable inferences supporting [Ms. Hampton’s] claim.” Tyler, 232 F.3d at 816.

A Racial Discrimination

Dillard’s next contends that it deserved judgment as a matter of law because there is no evidence of racial discrimination. In the second phase of the trial, the jury determined that the intentional interference with the contract was racially motivated, and it awarded Ms. Hampton $56,000 in compensatory damages and $1,100,000 in punitive damages.

“A plaintiff who lacks direct evidence of racial discrimination may rely on indirect evidence of discrimination....” Perry v. Woodward, 199 F.3d 1126, 1135 (10th Cir.1999). As noted above, because the issue of intent is one that is often not susceptible to direct proof, the jury considers all the conflicting inferences that the circumstantial evidence may present. See Washington, 710 F.Supp. at 1289 (citing Rogers, 458 U.S. at 618, 102 S.Ct. 3272). In a case where the plaintiff attempts to show intentional discrimination by indirect evidence, the court must employ “the burden-shifting framework first articulated in the seminal case of McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green, 411 U.S. 792, 802-04, 93 S.Ct. 1817, 36 L.Ed.2d 668 (1973).” Perry, 199 F.3d at 1134; see also Kendrick v. Penske Transp. Servs., 220 F.3d 1220, 1225 (10th Cir.2000) (noting that “[a] plaintiff alleging discrimination on the basis of race may prove intentional discrimination through either direct evidence of discrimination (e.g., oral or written statements on the part of a defendant showing a discriminatory motivation) or indirect (i.e., circumstantial) evidence of discrimination”).

However, after a full trial on the merits, “the single overarching issue” on which we focus is whether the adverse action was motivated by race. Tyler, 232 F.3d at 812 (setting out approach); Stewart v. Adolph Coots Co., 217 F.3d 1285, 1288 (10th Cir.2000) (stating that when reviewing sufficiency of the evidence of a *1108racial discrimination claim, “the burden shifting framework of McDonnell Douglas is largely irrelevant and the issue is whether the adverse employment action was motivated by race”). Thus, the sequential analysis of McDonnell Douglas “drops out” and “our inquiry ... is whether there was sufficient evidence presented for the jury to infer [Dillard’s] reasons were pretextual.” Tyler, 232 F.3d at 812 & n. 4 (internal quotation marks omitted).

Dillard’s contends that Officer Wilson, based on the facts and circumstances, had probable cause to stop Ms. Hampton. However, Dillard’s neglects to acknowledge that the jury may have found Mr. Wilson’s theory pretextual.4 Reeves v. Sanderson Plumbing Prods., Inc., 530 U.S. 133, 147, 120 S.Ct. 2097, 147 L.Ed.2d 105 (2000) (quoting St. Mary’s Honor Ctr. v. Hicks, 509 U.S. 502, 511, 113 S.Ct. 2742, 125 L.Ed.2d 407 (1993)). As noted above, the jury’s conclusions indicate it did not find Mr. Wilson’s testimony credible.5 Thus, “[o]ur holding is further fortified by our conclusions that the jury could reasonably infer all [defendant’s] previous justifications were pretextual. If the jury found, as a whole [Mr. Wilson] was not credible, its decision to reject [his] proffered reason ... is, likewise, reasonable.” Tyler, 232 F.3d at 816.

“The factfinder’s disbelief of the reasons put forward by the defendant (particularly if disbelief is accompanied by a suspicion of mendacity) may, together with the elements of the prima facie case, suffice to show intentional discrimination. Thus, rejection of the defendant’s proffered reasons will permit the trier of fact to infer the ultimate fact of intentional discrimination.”

Ms. Hampton relies primarily on indirect evidence of discrimination. In its memorandum in support of its motion for judgment as a matter of law before the district court, Dillard’s defends its security policies as “racially neutral,” Aplt’s App. vol. 1, at 182, and contends that there was no evidence that the store’s employees had a history of denying services or products to African American customers. Dillard’s fails to acknowledge that the evidence of discriminatory surveillance, although on its own not actionable under § 1981, see Lewis, 948 F.Supp. at 370 (rejected plaintiffs *1109theory of “an unstated, unwritten contract between commercial establishments and the public, that all who enter premises of the former will be treated equally regardless of race” because it would virtually nullify the contract requirement of § 1981), can certainly be viewed as indirect evidence of discrimination. See Hall v. Pennsylvania State Police, 570 F.2d 86, 92 (3d Cir.1978) (stating that policy to photograph African American customers of bank “was not the isolated act of an individual employee, but rather the implementation of a policy deliberately adopted by the bank management to offer its services under different terms dependent on race”); Washington, 710 F.Supp. at 1289 (denying defendant’s motion for summary judgment where policy of denying services to “suspicious” shoppers targeted African-Americans and stating that “[t]he issue of intent ... is one that is often not susceptible to direct proof, and a court should consider all conflicting inferences that may be presented by the circumstantial evidence in the case”).

Ms. Hampton presented multiple forms of indirect evidence of discrimination. She presented testimony from former Dillard’s security officers that corroborated the racial surveillance theory. She also presented testimony that African-Americans wei'e frequently “tracked” upon entering the store; that Dillard’s implemented race “codes” that highlighted African-American shoppers as suspicious; that African-Americans were singled out as “suspicious” for returning merchandise without a receipt or for moving between departments while carrying merchandise. See Aplt’s App. vol. 3, at 745-46, 751, 765-68, 781-85. In addition, store incident reports differentiated shoppers predominantly by race. As to Ms. Hampton specifically, she was noticed and placed under surveillance shortly after entering Dillard’s. The district court also noted that Mr. Wilson’s “Security Report,” despite being less than two pages long, reiterated Ms. Hampton’s race twelve times, reflecting implementation of the store’s policy and reflecting Mr. Wilson’s motivation. Given this abundant evidence, we agree with the district court and hold that the jury’s inference of racial discrimination was a reasonable one.

Finally, Dillard’s and the dissent strenuously argue that there is no direct evidence or indication that Mr. Wilson acted with an intent to discriminate. As discussed above, the fact that Mr. Wilson has not admitted discrimination, however, does not mean there is no evidence of discrimination. See Washington, 710 F.Supp. at 1289 (rejecting argument that because no employee “admitted in his or her deposition that he or she was discriminating and no store documents reveal discriminating intent, then there is no evidence that they discriminated against plaintiffs” because plaintiffs testified that they “believe[d] they were discriminated against by the store”). As previously noted, there was ample evidence (most tellingly, Mr. Wilson’s security report, which reiterated the race of the shoppers a dozen