Cortez v. McCauley

ON REHEARING EN BANC

joined by TACHA, Chief Judge, EBEL, HENRY, BRISCOE, LUCERO, and MURPHY, Circuit Judges, and joined in part by HARTZ, O’BRIEN, McCONNELL, TYMKOVICH, GORSUCH, and HOLMES, Circuit Judges.

We granted rehearing en banc primarily to consider under what circumstances, if any, an excessive force claim is subsumed in an unlawful arrest claim. The panel opinion upheld the district court’s denial of qualified immunity except for one excessive force claim, which the panel determined warranted qualified immunity. Cortez v. McCauley, 438 F.3d 980, 1002 (10th Cir.2006). We reject the notion that an excessive force claim is subsumed in an unlawful arrest claim in the facts presented by this case. Because our conclusion necessitates a change in some of the analysis, we vacate the panel opinion. Our jurisdiction to hear this appeal from the denial of partial summary judgment on qualified immunity grounds arises under 28 U.S.C. § 1291. See Mitchell v. Forsyth, 472 U.S. 511, 530, 105 S.Ct. 2806, 86 L.Ed.2d 411 (1985). We affirm in part and reverse in part.

Plaintiffs-Appellees, Rick Cortez and Tina Cortez, filed suit alleging claims pursuant to 42 U.S.C. § 1983 as well as claims under New Mexico law, seeking damages from employees of the Bernalillo County Sheriffs Department and the Board of County Commissioners of the County of Bernalillo, New Mexico (“Board”). The Plaintiffs alleged, inter alia, that the Defendants violated the Plaintiffs’ Fourth Amendment rights by (1) unlawfully arresting and interrogating the Plaintiffs; (2) using excessive force on the Plaintiffs; and (3) unreasonably searching the Plaintiffs’ home. The district court denied the Defendants’ motion for partial summary judgment as to Defendants McCauley, Gonzales, Sanchez, and Covington. With respect to the other Defendants, Bowdich and the Board, the court concluded that the Plaintiffs had made a meritorious showing under Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(f). Consequently, these Defendants’ motions for partial summary judgment were denied without prejudice pending further discovery.

Background

On May 26, 2001, at 12:24 a.m., the Bernalillo County Sheriffs Department re*1113ceived a telephone call from a nurse at Saint Joseph’s Hospital alerting that Raquel Villegas (“Ms.Villegas”), had brought her two-year-old daughter to the hospital alleging that the child had complained that her babysitter’s “boyfriend”1 had “hurt her pee pee.” In response to this allegation, the Defendants McCauley, Gonzales, Sanchez, and Covington were dispatched to Plaintiffs’ residence. The officers did not wait to receive the results of the medical examination of the child, did not interview the child or her mother, and did not seek to obtain a warrant.

At approximately 1:00 a.m., the deputies made contact with the Plaintiffs. Rick Cortez was asleep when he was suddenly awakened by noises and lights in his fenced back yard. He heard a knock on the front door. Wearing only a pair of shorts, Rick Cortez opened the front door and saw two police officers through the closed screen door. He repeatedly inquired what was going on. The officers did not answer but instead ordered him to exit his house. As he opened the screen door and began to leave the house, the officers seized him, handcuffed him, read him his Miranda2 rights, and placed him in the back of a patrol car where he was subjected to questioning.

Tina Cortez was awakened by her husband as he got out of bed. Shortly after Rick Cortez left the bedroom, she followed him. She reached the front door just in time to watch the Defendants handcuff her husband and place him in the back of the patrol car. Tina Cortez headed toward the bedroom in order to make a telephone call, but before she could complete the call, Defendant McCauley entered the home, seized her by the arm, and physically escorted her from her home. The officer placed her in a separate patrol car where she was subjected to questioning. Defendant McCauley did allow Tina Cortez to use his cell phone. Both Rick and Tina Cortez indicate that an officer seized the keys to their house, locked the door, and would not let them return for approximately an hour. They allege that when they returned, the Defendants informed them that their dog had been maced and his eyes needed to be washed out. ApltApp. 23, 63, 64.

Defendants performed a warrantless search of the home, purportedly to find additional children that might be present and to eliminate the possibility of any unknown threat to officer safety. During the subsequent interrogations of the Plaintiffs, the Defendants learned that Tina Cortez managed a small day care facility in which she took care of several children. The Defendants further learned that Ms. Ville-gas had a verbal altercation with the Plaintiffs after the Plaintiffs informed her that they would no longer take care of her child. Additionally, while providing his statement, Rick Cortez also informed the officers that his handcuffs were too tight and caused excessive pain. Despite his declaration and the fact that Rick Cortez supposedly was not under arrest, the officers never loosened the handcuffs.

As these events unfolded at the Cortez residence, Officer Zuniga and Detective Foster made contact with Ms. Villegas at the hospital. Ms. Villegas provided an unsworn written statement in which she described the events that led to her accu*1114sation. She also recounted a verbal dispute she had with the Plaintiffs. Additionally, Detective Foster was informed by the nurse who conducted the examination that “no evidence of penile penetration was present.” Further, the nurse identified two potential sources of the child’s vaginal irritation.3

Because the hospital did not find any evidence of molestation, the Plaintiffs were released from detention and permitted to reenter their home. The dispatch report for the incident indicated that they were released sometime between 1:49 a.m. and 2:16 a.m. on May 26, 2001. Rick Cortez was never charged with a crime associated with the allegations of Ms. Villegas.4

Based on this early morning encounter with law enforcement officers, the Plaintiffs filed suit. Appellants McCauley, Gonzales, Sanchez, Covington, and Bowdich moved for summary judgment on grounds of qualified immunity as to the § 1983 claims against them in their individual capacities. Defendants McCauley, Gonzales, Sanchez and Covington asserted they did not commit an unreasonable search and seizure against either Plaintiff and that excessive force was not used against either Plaintiff. Defendant Bowdich argued he could not be held liable in his supervisory capacity. Shortly after filing the motion, the Defendants above joined with the Board and moved that discovery be stayed pending the outcome of their motion for summary judgment. On March 17, 2004, the district court denied the Defendants’ motion for summary judgment. This appeal followed.

Standard of Review

“Because of the underlying purposes of qualified immunity, we review summary judgment orders deciding qualified immunity questions differently from other summary judgment decisions.” Medina v. Cram, 252 F.3d 1124, 1128 (10th Cir.2001). When a defendant asserts a qualified immunity defense, the burden shifts to the plaintiff, who must first establish that the defendant violated a constitutional right. Reynolds v. Powell, 370 F.3d 1028, 1030 (10th Cir.2004). “If no constitutional right would have been violated were the allegations established, there is no necessity for further inquiries concerning qualified immunity.” Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 201, 121 S.Ct. 2151, 150 L.Ed.2d 272 (2001). If, on the other hand, a violation has been shown, the plaintiff must then show that the constitutional right was clearly established. See id. “This inquiry, it is vital to note, must be undertaken in light of the specific context of the case, not as a broad general proposition.... ” Id. “The relevant, dispositive inquiry in determining whether a right is clearly established is whether it would be clear to a reasonable officer that his conduct was unlawful in the situation....” Id. at 202, 121 S.Ct. 2151. Summary judgment based on qualified immunity is appropriate if the law did not put the officer on notice that his conduct would be clearly unlawful. Id. (citing Malley v. Briggs, 475 U.S. 335, 341, 106 S.Ct. 1092, 89 L.Ed.2d 271 (1986)).

We have held that, for a right to be clearly established, “there must be a Supreme Court or Tenth Circuit decision on point, or the clearly established weight of authority from other courts must have *1115found the law to be as the plaintiff maintains.” Medina v. City of Denver, 960 F.2d 1493, 1498 (10th Cir.1992). The Supreme Court has explained that “officials can still be on notice that their conduct violates established law even in novel factual circumstances.” Hope v. Pelzer, 536 U.S. 730, 741, 122 S.Ct. 2508, 153 L.Ed.2d 666 (2002).

The district court’s denial of qualified immunity is a question of law which we review de novo. Bisbee v. Bey, 39 F.3d 1096, 1099 (10th Cir.1994). We review the evidence in the light most favorable to the nonmoving party. Id. at 1100. Summary judgment is appropriate only “if the pleadings, depositions, answers to interrogatories, and admissions on file, together with the affidavits, if any, show that there is no genuine issue as to any material fact and ... the moving party is entitled to a judgment as a matter of law.” Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(c).

Analysis

The district court held that both Plaintiffs were arrested and searched and that genuine issues of material fact existed as to the presence of probable cause. It also rejected an investigative detention rationale for the Defendants’ conduct, noting that the Defendants had “not articulated any specific facts that led them to believe Plaintiffs presented a threat to anyone’s safety at the time of the arrest or were about to destroy evidence of a crime.” Aplt.App. 178. In a qualified immunity appeal, we are required to consider those facts which the district court found were sufficient to support the denial of the motion for summary judgment. See Behrens v. Pelletier, 516 U.S. 299, 313, 116 S.Ct. 834, 133 L.Ed.2d 773 (1996). Our interlocutory jurisdiction is limited to legal questions drawn from facts that are deemed undisputed for appellate purposes. Johnson v. Jones, 515 U.S. 304, 313, 115 S.Ct. 2151, 132 L.Ed.2d 238 (1995); Mitchell, 472 U.S. at 528, 105 S.Ct. 2806. We believe our discussion will be clearer if each Plaintiff is discussed separately, along with the actions taken against that Plaintiff.

I. Plaintiffs’ Fourth Amendment Claim Against Unreasonable Seizure

A. Legal Framework

In Oliver v. Woods, 209 F.3d 1179, 1186 (10th Cir.2000), we stated “[t]he Supreme Court has identified three types of police/citizen encounters: consensual encounters, investigative stops, and arrests.” 5 “Consensual encounters are not seizures within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment and need not be supported by suspicion of criminal wrongdoing.” Id.

An investigative detention is “a seizure within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment but, unlike an arrest, it need not be supported by probable cause.” Id. An officer “can stop and briefly detain a person for investigative purposes if the officer has a reasonable suspicion supported by articulable facts that criminal activity may be afoot, even if the officer lacks probable cause.” Id. For an officer to have reasonable suspicion to seize an individual, the officer “must have a particularized and objective basis for suspecting the particular person stopped of criminal activity.” Id.

A warrantless arrest is permissible when an officer “has probable cause to believe that a person committed a crime.” Romero v. Fay, 45 F.3d 1472, 1476 (10th Cir.1995). An arrest is distinguished by the involuntary, “highly intrusive” nature of the encounter. Oliver, 209 F.3d at 1186. “[T]he use of firearms, *1116handcuffs, and other forceful techniques” generally exceed the scope of an investigative detention and enter the realm of an arrest. See United States v. Melendez-Garcia, 28 F.3d 1046, 1052 (10th Cir.1994). “Probable cause to arrest exists only when the facts and circumstances within the officers’ knowledge, and of which they have reasonably trustworthy information, are sufficient in themselves to warrant a man of reasonable caution in the belief that an offense has been or is being committed.” United States v. Valenzuela, 365 F.3d 892, 896 (10th Cir.2004) (internal quotation marks omitted).

B. Seizure of Rick Cortez

Viewing the facts in the light most favorable to the Plaintiffs, the district court determined that “the scope and duration of a lawful investigative detention was quickly exceeded in this case, and the situation became a full custodial arrest.” Aplt.App. 178. We agree with this characterization as to Plaintiff Rick Cortez. Against this backdrop, we have no difficulty in finding that Rick Cortez has presented facts or allegations showing the Defendants violated a constitutional right, namely the Fourth Amendment right to be free of unreasonable seizure. See Olsen v. Layton Hills Mall, 312 F.3d 1304, 1312 (10th Cir.2002). It appears that the officers: (1) grabbed Rick Cortez, barefoot and wearing only shorts, and pulled him from the doorway of his home; (2) handcuffed him; (3) advised him of his Miranda rights; (4) placed him in the back seat of the locked patrol car; and (5) questioned him while he was in the back seat of the locked patrol car. We also note that the encounter took place after midnight.6

In evaluating whether the events leading up to this arrest amount to probable cause, we ask whether an objectively reasonable officer could conclude that the historical facts at the time of the arrest amount to probable cause. Maryland v. Pringle, 540 U.S. 366, 371, 124 S.Ct. 795, 157 L.Ed.2d 769 (2003); Gardenhire v. Schubert, 205 F.3d 303, 318 (6th Cir.2000). Probable cause is based on the totality of the circumstances, and requires reasonably trustworthy information that would lead a reasonable officer to believe that the person about to be arrested has committed or is about to commit a crime. Pringle, 540 U.S. at 371 n. 2, 124 S.Ct. 795. As noted, the only information which arguably implicated Rick Cortez was a statement attributed to a barely-verbal two-year old child that her babysitter’s “boyfriend” had “hurt her pee pee.” The statement was relayed by telephone to the officers, from the nurse, who heard it from the mother who ostensibly heard it from the two-year old. Rather than waiting to receive the results of the medical examination of the child, interview the child or her mother to better understand the circumstances, or seek to obtain a warrant, the officers responded to the statement with an immediate arrest of the babysitter’s husband, Rick Cortez.

Plainly, whether we view it as a need for more pre-arrest investigation because of insufficient information, see Valenzuela, 365 F.3d at 902,7 or inadequate corroborá*1117tion, what the officers had fell short of reasonably trustworthy information indicating that a crime had been committed by Rick Cortez. See BeVier v. Hucal, 806 F.2d 128, 128 (7th Cir.1986) (“A police officer may not close her or his eyes to facts that would help clarify the circumstances of an arrest. Reasonable avenues of investigation must be pursued especially when, as here, it is unclear whether a crime had even taken place.”). Based on the facts above, Rick Cortez was arrested without probable cause.8 This warrantless arrest constitutes a constitutional violation.9

Under the second sequential question, we must also find that the right was clearly established when the alleged violation occurred. The law was and is unambiguous: a government official must have probable cause to arrest an individual. See Tennessee v. Garner, 471 U.S. 1, 7, 105 S.Ct. 1694, 85 L.Ed.2d 1 (1985); United States v. Watson, 423 U.S. 411, 417-22, 96 S.Ct. 820, 46 L.Ed.2d 598 (1976); Olsen, 312 F.3d at 1312 (warrantless arrest without probable cause violates an arrestee’s clearly established Fourth Amendment rights). Furthermore, it was established law that “the probable cause standard of the Fourth Amendment requires officers to reasonably interview witnesses readily available at the scene, investigate basic evidence, or otherwise inquire if a crime has been committed at all before invoking the power of warrantless arrest and detention.” Romero, 45 F.3d at 1476-77 (footnote omitted); see also Baptiste v. J.C. Penney, Co., 147 F.3d 1252, 1259 (10th Cir.1998) (“[P]olice officers may not ignore easily accessible evidence and thereby delegate their duty to investigate and make an independent probable cause determination based on that investigation.”). In the present case, witnesses were readily available for interviews, physical evidence was available, and a medical diagnosis was forthcoming. Defendants, however, did not: (1) interview the girl, her mother, the nurse, or the doctor; (2) inspect the girl’s clothing for possible signs of sexual assault; or (3) wait for a preliminary report from the doctor. In other words, Defendants conducted no investigation. Instead, *1118the Defendants relied on the flimsiest of information conveyed by a telephone call.

Defendants rely upon the alleged statement of a two-year-old child which was relayed to them by a nurse, who heard it from the girl’s mother. The fact that hearsay evidence would not be admissible at trial to prove guilt does not make it unusable as a source of probable cause for a warrantless arrest. See United States v. Swingler, 758 F.2d 477, 487 (10th Cir.1985). Defendants have cited the “excited utterance” exception to the hearsay rule contained in Fed.R.Evid. 803(2). Arguably, the statement might also fall within the “medical diagnosis” exception of Fed. R.Evid. 803(4), but there is no need to engage in such analysis. The statement is not being presented for the truth of the matter asserted therein; the issue is whether the officers were justified in relying upon it alone.10

That unsubstantiated double-hearsay originating from a two-year-old, standing alone, does not give rise to probable cause should have been patently obvious to any reasonable law enforcement official.11 Even without prior case law on point, therefore, we would harbor no qualms concluding, based solely on cases like Gamer and Watson, that the officers were on reasonable notice that their actions ran afoul *1119of the Fourth Amendment. This follows from the fact that the Supreme Court has instructed that “a general constitutional rule already identified in the decisional law may apply with obvious clarity to the specific conduct in question, even though the very action in question has not previously been held unlawful.” United States v. Lanier, 520 U.S. 259, 271, 117 S.Ct. 1219, 137 L.Ed.2d 432 (1997); see also Hope, 536 U.S. at 740-41, 122 S.Ct. 2508.

Nonetheless, we have previously held that a bare allegation of wrongdoing, without any investigation, in some circumstances, may not give rise to probable cause. In Baptiste, we affirmed the denial of qualified immunity for officers who relied solely on the statements of store security guards — despite having seen a contradictory security videotape capturing the events in question — to establish probable cause for arrest. Id. at 1254.12 Notably, we held that there was an unconstitutional arrest lacking probable cause because the officers had relied solely on the statements of individuals who ostensibly witnessed an alleged ctime. Additionally, we held that the illegality of the sole reliance on the security guards’ statements, without additional investigation, was clearly established. Id. at 1258-59. In so doing, we explained that, based on prior case law, “a reasonable officer would have known [that the] failure to investigate violated the constitutional or statutory rights of the plaintiff.” Id. at 1258. Similarly, in the instant case, officers relied, without any investigation, exclusively on the double-hearsay statement of a nurse who had no personal knowledge of the actual facts. In light of Baptiste, the officers were on notice that this uncorroborated double-hearsay statement was insufficient to establish probable cause, especially given that the officers could easily have interviewed the nurse, Ms. Villegas, or the girl before moving to arrest Mr. Cortez.13

In Easton v. City of Boulder, 776 F.2d 1441 (10th Cir.1985), we declined to discount the statements to police of a three-year-old and a five-year-old regarding child abuse based solely on their age, despite some apparent inconsistencies and even though such testimony might not be admissible in court. Id. at 1449. We specifically found, however, that the five-year-old’s statement had “corroborated all the facts given by [the three-year-old] ... with respect to the assault [the five-year-old] witnessed.” Id. at 1443. Here, no such corroboration was present. Additionally in Easton, we found that details in both chil-drens’ statements regarding the plaintiffs residence and the site of the assault were independently corroborated by police investigation. Id. at 1450.

United States v. Shaw, 464 F.3d 615 (6th Cir.2006), is a case virtually on all-fours with the instant case with respect to the probable cause inquiry. The panel majority found probable cause wanting for an arrest of the defendant based upon a mother’s hearsay statements to medical personnel later reported to military police. Id. at 626. According to the mother, her *1120three-year-old son claimed that the defendant “had ‘touched his pee-pee’ ” and that the defendant’s “ ‘pee-pee had touched his butt.’ ” Id. at 618. The examining physician found no evidence of trauma or penetration. The child was not interviewed and no effort was made to corroborate the allegations as reported by the mother. The Shaw panel majority stated:

We are not aware ... of any situation in which the uncorroborated hearsay statement of a child as young as three, standing alone, has been considered sufficient to establish probable cause.

[WJe see no way to affirm the district court’s finding of probable cause in this case without carving out what would amount to an exception to the probable-cause requirement in child-molestation cases. We decline to adopt such an exception.

We hold only that the mother’s bare-bones hearsay accusation in this case, with no corroborating evidence, did not suffice to establish probable cause, and that the ensuing arrest was therefore unlawful.

Id. at 624, 626. Both the panel majority and dissent cited the panel opinion in this case with approval,14 the Shaw panel majority also recognized that our decision in Easton simply does not support the notion that an uncorroborated hearsay statement of a three-year old involving sexual touching provides probable cause. Shaw, 464 F.3d at 624-26.

In sum, we find that viewing the undisputed facts in the light most favorable to the Plaintiffs, an arrest without probable cause occurred. As we discuss below, no exigent circumstances would justify a warrantless arrest either. This conclusion does not, however, end our analysis. Even law enforcement officials who reasonably but mistakenly conclude that probable cause is present are entitled to immunity. Romero, 45 F.3d at 1476.15 Therefore, when a warrantless arrest or seizure is the subject of a § 1983 action, the defendant is entitled to qualified immunity if a reasonable officer could have believed that probable cause existed to arrest or detain the plaintiff.

This principle may appear to be in some tension with the equally established principle that “it is a jury question in a civil rights suit whether an officer had probable cause to arrest.” DeLoach v. Bevers, 922 F.2d 618, 623 (10th Cir.1990). The tension is resolved in this case by the essential lack of dispute over the historical, predicate facts. The parties agree on the “what happened” questions. In such a circumstance, for qualified immunity purposes, there is no such thing as a “genuine issue of fact” as to whether an officer “should have known” that his conduct violated constitutional rights. See Pace v. City of Des Moines, 201 F.3d 1050, 1056 (8th Cir.2000).16 The conduct was either objectively reasonable under existing law or it was *1121not. Id. We find the officers did not have “arguable probable cause” to arrest Rick Cortez because, as mentioned above, the information relied on to conduct the seizure was not reasonably trustworthy information sufficient on its own to justify the seizure.

While agreeing that probable cause was not present and that this case requires a different result than Easton, a concurring and dissenting opinion repeatedly questions “[w]hat exactly would have put the officers on clear notice that relying on a two-year-old’s statement to support the arrest of Mr. Cortez was impermissible?” C & D Op. at 9 (Gorsuch, J., concurring and dissenting). As a factual matter, it is undisputed that the ostensible purpose of the officers’ visit to the home was “to secure the location of the alleged offender in order to preserve evidence of the alleged molestation so that [they] could obtain a search warrant if necessary pending the findings of the preliminary investigation at the hospital” and to find out “whether Mr. Cortez had access to other children.” Aplt.App. at 56, 122. Settled law makes it clear that probable cause is measured at the moment the arrest occurs and must derive from facts and circumstances based on reasonably trustworthy information. Hunter v. Bryant, 502 U.S. 224, 228, 112 S.Ct. 534, 116 L.Ed.2d 589 (1991); Beck v. Ohio, 379 U.S. 89, 91, 85 S.Ct. 223, 13 L.Ed.2d 142 (1964). No reasonable officer could have believed that the double-hearsay statement of the nurse constituted sufficient facts and circumstances based on reasonably trustworthy information to supply probable cause in these circumstances.17 We make no apologies for looking at what information the officers possessed against a backdrop of the known progress of their investigation, including the steps that had not been taken at the time Rick Cortez was arrested. The sequence of the investigation that did occur is plainly part of the facts in this case-and it is clear that the officers got ahead of themselves insofar as arresting Rick Cortez, entering the residence and subjecting Tina Cortez to an investigative detention. Of course, additional investigation that does not uncover anything does not aid in a probable cause determination. Likewise, if there is no evidence or only enough for suspicion, the import of our cases is that additional investigation may well be necessary in order to uncover additional evidence and establish probable cause.18

The concurring and dissenting opinion of Judge Gorsuch suggests that a reasonable officer would conclude “that a statement emanating from the victim of an alleged sexual assault, with little more, is sufficient to supply probable cause,” based on the holding of Easton and the background law concerning victim statements, and that Ea-ston did not clearly preclude what occurred here. C & D Op. at 9 & n. 7. Easton may be read to hold that ordinarily, the statement of a victim of a crime to police may establish probable cause absent some reason to think the statement not trustworthy. But only if the facts of cases do not matter, would the expansive and incorrect interpretation put forth by the concurring and dissenting opinion be plausible. In Easton, the police twice inter*1122viewed the children and possessed ample corroborating evidence. In this case, the child was not interviewed by law enforcement once, let alone twice, nor was anyone else prior to the arrest. Although Easton did state that the scrutiny reserved for informants is relaxed for victim-witnesses, it still required reasonably trustworthy information for probable cause in this context. 776 F.3d at 1450. The dicta in Easton that statements of the children could have established probable cause deals with their direct statements to the officers-something not present in this case.

The law was clearly established that the double-hearsay statement of a nurse, based on information allegedly provided by a two-year-old child and reported in a telephone call, does not establish probable cause and that more information is necessary. See Shaw, 464 F.3d at 624 (discussing eases involving child-testimony and noting that the child’s testimony was not the only evidence supporting probable cause). To be sure, we have held that corroboration is not essential for victim-witnesses, though in those cases we have held that the victim’s statements were amply corroborated. See United States v. Patane, 304 F.3d 1013, 1017 (10th Cir.2002), rev’d on other• grounds, 542 U.S. 630, 124 S.Ct. 2620, 159 L.Ed.2d 667 (2004); Easton, 776 F.2d at 1449-1450. Regardless, both Patane and Easton involved statements by victims, not double-hearsay, and both cases noted that no facts suggested an ulterior motive for such statements. Patane, 304 F.3d at 1017; Easton, 776 F.3d at 1450-51.

Our cases suggest a duty to investigate to ascertain information on whether a crime occurred at all.19 Although the concurring and dissenting opinion of Judge Gorsuch distinguishes the application of the general rules in Romero and Baptiste, which suggest that additional investigation may sometimes be necessary in order to generate information supporting probable cause, precise factual correspondence is not necessary. Anderson v. Blake, 469 F.3d 910, 913-14 (10th Cir.2006). The approach taken by the concurring and dissenting opinion of Judge Gorsuch is tantamount to requiring a case on all fours before government officials could be held liable-all that is required is that “in the light of pre-existing law the unlawfulness must be apparent.” Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635, 640, 107 S.Ct. 3034,