737 N.W.2d 200 (2007)

Nancy BECKER and Michael Becker, individually and as parents and guardians for Nykkole E. Becker f/k/a Nykkole E. Rossini, Appellants,
Minnesota Department of Human Services, Plaintiff Intervenor, Appellant,
v.
MAYO FOUNDATION, Respondent.

No. A05-45.

Supreme Court of Minnesota.

August 16, 2007.

*203 Chris A. Messerly, Laura M. Provinzino, Robins, Kaplan, Miller & Ciresi L.L.P., Minneapolis, MN, for Appellants and State of Minnesota.

Paul B. Klaas, Gillian Brennan, Dorsey & Whitney LLP, Ann E. Decker, Fredrickson & Byron, Minneapolis, MN, for Respondent.

Gail Chang Bohr, Children's Law Center of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, Mary R. Vasaly, Mason, Edelman, Borman & Brand, L.L.P., Minneapolis, MN, for Amicus Curiae Children's Law Center of Minnesota.

Elizabeth Melton, Ani Backa Hartzheim, Foley & Mansfield PLLP, Minneapolis, MN, for Amicus Curiae Prevent Child Abuse Minnesota.

Karen J. Kingsley, Kingsley Law Office, P.A., St. Paul, MN, for Amicus Curiae Minnesota Trial Lawyers Association.

Michael G. Finnegan, Jeff Anderson & Associates, P.A., St. Paul, MN, for Amicus Curiae Survivors Network Minnesota.

Mark. R. Whitemore, Charles E. Lundberg, Susan E. Gustad, Bassford Remele, Minneapolis, MN, for Amicus Curiae Minnesota Hospital Association; Minnesota Medical Association; American Medical Association; Minnesota Orthopaedic Association; American Association of Orthopaedic Surgeons; American College of Emergency Physicians; and American Academy of Pediatrics, Minnesota Chapter.

Louise Dovre Bjorkman, Paula Duggan Vraa, Carrie A. Daniel, Larson King, L.L.P., St. Paul, MN, for Amicus Curiae Minnesota Defense Lawyers Association.

John Michael Jerabek, Niemi, Barr & Jerabek, P.A., Minneapolis, MN, for Amicus Curiae.

Heard, considered, and decided by the court en banc.

OPINION

ANDERSON, PAUL H., Justice.

The adoptive parents of a child abused by her biological father sued the hospital that treated the child. The parents alleged that the hospital's physicians failed to prevent ongoing abuse. The district court granted the hospital's motion to strike three counts in the parents' complaint and ruled that the parents could not introduce evidence of the hospital's failure to report suspected child abuse to outside authorities. A jury then determined that the hospital was negligent but that this negligence was not a direct cause of the child's injuries. The parents appealed, arguing that a cause of action exists under the Child Abuse Reporting Act, Minn.Stat. § 626.556, and at common law for failure to report suspected abuse. The court of appeals affirmed the district court. We affirm in part, reverse in part, and remand.

Nykkole Becker, formerly known as Nykkole Rossini, is the adopted daughter of appellants Nancy Becker and Michael Becker. Nykkole, who is now ten-years-old, suffers from severe, permanent disabilities as a result of physical abuse by her biological father. Her biological parents are Brian Rossini and Sabryna Koob.

Nykkole was born on July 26, 1997 at Methodist Hospital in Rochester, Minnesota. At birth she was a healthy child. On August 17, 1997, when she was 22 days old, her biological parents brought her to the emergency room at Saint Mary's Hospital in Rochester, a hospital owned by respondent Mayo Foundation. When Nykkole was brought to the hospital she had bruises on her left forearm. Following an examination and x-rays, hospital staff diagnosed Nykkole as having a spiral fracture *204 to the left humerus. The humerus is the long bone in the upper arm and a spiral fracture is one that goes around the bone. Medical staff at Saint Mary's questioned both parents about the injury to Nykkole and how it occurred. Brian Rossini told the medical staff that the fracture occurred as the result of an accident. He said that he was feeding Nykkole while holding her in his arms and that as he stood to reach for a bottle she "spasmed" and began to roll out of arms. He stated that as Nykkole fell, he grabbed her left arm to keep her from hitting the floor.

Dr. Gregory Alberton applied a splint to Nykkole's left arm and gave her parents a date for a follow up appointment. Dr. Alberton and other medical staff members who had seen Nykkole on August 17 were questioned extensively at trial about the decision to send Nykkole home with her parents that day. Dr. Julia Rosekrans stated that she questioned Nykkole's parents about the injury. Because the humerus is the most commonly fractured bone in child abuse cases and this type of injury is uncommon in infants, Dr. Rosekrans indicated that she initially suspected child abuse. As a result of this suspicion, Dr. Rosekrans, Dr. Alberton, and Dr. Sarah Brandt, a pediatric resident, all questioned Nykkole's parents about the injury.

Dr. Rosekrans stated that after questioning Rossini, she and other staff members believed his story because the accident he described would cause the precise type of injury Nykkole suffered and because he told the story consistently to Dr. Alberton and Dr. Brandt and told it in an unrehearsed manner. Dr. Rosekrans stated that based on her experience, when abusive parents describe injuries to their children their stories tend to change with each retelling. Dr. Rosekrans acknowledged that she did not interview Nykkole's parents separately and that she and the other staff members did not corroborate Rossini's story with additional sources. After consulting with each other, the physicians concluded that the injuries to Nykkole were not caused by abuse, and they released her to her parent's care.

On September 3, Nykkole returned to the hospital for a follow-up treatment for the fracture to her left arm. At this time, hospital staff who treated Nykkole determined that the fracture was healing and that no further treatment was necessary.

On September 11, 1997 Nykkole was again brought to Saint Mary's emergency room by her mother Sabryna Koob. Koob told the medical staff who attended to Nykkole that she was concerned because Nykkole had vomited at least ten times that day and was "sleeping a lot." Koob stated that Nykkole had no other symptoms. Dr. Rosekrans again examined Nykkole, spending almost an hour performing a full physical examination and feeding Nykkole water and infant formula. Dr. Rosekrans stated that she observed no other symptoms and — after concluding that Nykkole had a stomach bug — sent her home with her mother.

Four days later, on September 15, 1997, Koob again brought Nykkole to Saint Mary's emergency room. Nykkole was pale, listless, "acting spacey," smacking her lips, and jerking her left arm and leg. She also had a yellow/green bruise on her head and a swollen fontanelle.^[1] Radiological testing revealed that Nykkole had multiple skull fractures, multiple rib fractures, and fractures to both legs. She was also diagnosed as suffering from bleeding in *205 the brain and brain infarctions.^[2] The amount of healing to some of the rib fractures made it apparent that the fractures predated the September 11 emergency room visit. Koob asserted that Nykkole hit her head on the bathtub, but Nykkole's treating physicians found this explanation implausible. Nykkole was admitted to the intensive care unit with a diagnosis of Shaken Baby Syndrome.

Following Nykkole's hospitalization and treatment, the state took custody of Nykkole and placed her in foster care with petitioners Nancy and Michael Becker. Rossini was arrested, charged, tried, and convicted of first- and third-degree assault for injuring Nykkole. The district court sentenced Rossini to 180 months in prison. At Rossini's trial, Koob admitted that she made up the story about Nykkole hitting her head on the bathtub because she feared she would lose custody of Nykkole. Koob pleaded guilty to child endangerment. Rossini and Koob each had their parental rights terminated and were ordered jointly to pay the Beckers $58,685 in restitution. The Beckers subsequently adopted Nykkole.

Nykkole, who is now ten-years-old, will never function above the level of an infant. She cannot walk, talk, sit up, or feed or dress herself. Her life expectancy has been significantly reduced as a result of her injuries, and as long as she lives she will require 24-hour medical care and special medical equipment. It is undisputed that Nykkole's disabilities resulted from the injuries discovered and diagnosed on September 15, 1997.

In 2001, the Beckers sued Mayo,^[3] alleging that negligence on the part of Nykkole's treating physicians caused her injuries. The Beckers alleged that Mayo's negligence included:

(a) failure to adequately assess and document injuries associated with intentionally afflicted trauma;

(b) failure to recognize and treat signs and symptoms of head trauma in an infant with a history of suspicious traumatic injury;

(c) failure as a mandatory reporter to report suspected child abuse;

(d) failure to have in place hospital policies requiring hospital personnel to comply with mandatory reporting requirements;

(e) failure to monitor activities of hospital staff to assure compliance with reporting of suspected child abuse.

Mayo moved to strike allegations (c), (d), and (e) on the grounds that there is no private civil cause of action for failure to report suspected child abuse. The Beckers opposed the motion, relying on cases from other jurisdictions, expert testimony, and journal articles to argue that a physician's standard of care includes diagnosing and reporting abuse to outside authorities, and this standard in turn creates a common law duty on the part of the physician to report the suspected abuse to the proper authorities. The district court granted Mayo's motion to strike, relying on the conclusion of the Minnesota Court of Appeals in Valtakis v. Putnam, 504 N.W.2d 264, 266 (Minn.App.1993), that the Minnesota Child Abuse Reporting Act ("CARA"), Minn.Stat. § 626.556, created a statutory duty to report suspected abuse but did not create a civil cause of action for failure to *206 do so. Subsequently, the district court granted Mayo's motion in limine to exclude all evidence related to Mayo's reporting of child abuse to outside authorities.

In a petition for discretionary review to the court of appeals, the Beckers challenged the district court's order to strike their allegations. The court of appeals denied review, and the district court then prevented the Beckers from presenting any evidence at trial of Mayo's failure to report suspected abuse of Nykkole to outside authorities. The district court did allow the Beckers to present evidence regarding services available to Mayo's physicians, including social, family, or psychological services that could have assisted in diagnosing and treating Nykkole.

After a two-week trial, a jury found that Mayo had been negligent but that its negligence was not a direct cause of Nykkole's injuries. The Beckers moved for a new trial, asserting that they were deprived of a fair trial and that the jury's verdict was not supported by the evidence. The district court denied the motion, concluding again that there was no common law cause of action for failure to report child abuse in Minnesota and that the verdict was reasonable. In denying the Beckers' motion, the court acknowledged Mayo's argument that the Beckers' offer of proof of what child protection agents would have done if contacted about suspected abuse to Nykkole was insufficient to warrant a new trial. The court noted that this argument had some merit, as the Beckers never offered to call a child protection worker as part of their offer of proof. But the court concluded that the Beckers had nevertheless made their theory of liability "abundantly clear" and therefore the court stated that it was not denying the motion based on the insufficiency of the Beckers' offer of proof.

The Beckers sought review by the court of appeals, arguing that (1) the district court's erroneous exclusion of reporting-related evidence effectively abolished their common law claim that Mayo breached its duty to report Nykkole's abuse; (2) Mayo's physicians had a special relationship with Nykkole and thus a common law duty to protect Nykkole from the criminal conduct of her father; and (3) the jury's causation verdict was based solely on errors of law at trial. Becker v. Mayo, No. A05-45, 2005 WL 3527163, at *1 (Minn. App. Dec.27, 2005).

On April 21, 2005, after the parties had filed their principal briefs with the court of appeals but before the Beckers filed their reply brief, we issued our decision in Radke v. County of Freeborn, 694 N.W.2d 788 (Minn.2005). In Radke, we held that a cause of action exists for "negligence in the investigation of child abuse and neglect reports as required under CARA [the Child Abuse Reporting Act]." 694 N.W.2d at 799. In their reply brief, the Beckers argued that the Radke decision "topples the foundation upon which the district court struck" their negligence allegations and excluded reporting evidence at trial.

Following oral argument, the court of appeals, in an unpublished decision, affirmed the district court's denial of the Beckers' motion for a new trial. Becker, 2005 WL 3527163, at *6. The court first noted that our decision in Radke recognized civil liability for failure to investigate abuse after it has been reported, not for failure to report suspected abuse. Id. at *3-4. The court concluded that the cases from other jurisdictions, expert testimony, and journal articles cited by the Beckers were unpersuasive and held that there is no common law cause of action in Minnesota for failure to report suspected child abuse. Id. at *4. The court also concluded that Mayo had no "special relationship" *207 with Nykkole that would give rise to a duty to report. Id. at *4-5. Finally, the court held that, while reporting-related evidence would have been admissible at trial, its exclusion did not prejudice the Beckers' ability to establish causation because they were still able to present testimony regarding Mayo's own resources that might have prevented Nykkole's injuries. Id. at *5-6.

We granted the Beckers' petition for review of three issues: (1) whether CARA creates a cause of action for failure to report suspected child abuse; (2) whether a hospital that accepts responsibility for treating a child owes that child a special duty to protect her from future harm; and (3) whether there is a common law cause of action for failure to report suspected child abuse in Minnesota.

I.

Although CARA does not expressly create a cause of action for failure to report suspected child abuse, the Beckers argue that our holding in Radke compels us to recognize such a cause of action. They also argue that CARA's policy of preventing abuse, CARA's civil immunity provision, and the lack of actual prosecutions for failure to report weigh in favor of recognizing civil liability. Mayo asserts that the vast majority of other states' reporting acts impose criminal, not civil, liability for failure to report, and that courts in those states have rejected efforts to impose civil liability by implication.

A. CARA

Construction of a statute is a legal question that we review de novo. Lewis-Miller v. Ross, 710 N.W.2d 565, 568 (Minn.2006). A statute does not give rise to a civil cause of action unless the language of the statute is explicit or it can be determined by clear implication. Larson v. Dunn, 460 N.W.2d 39, 47 n. 4 (Minn. 1990).^[4] "[I]t is an elemental canon of statutory construction that where a statute expressly provides a particular remedy or remedies, a court must be chary of reading others into it." Transamerica Mortgage Advisors, Inc. v. Lewis, 444 U.S. 11, 19, 100 S.Ct. 242, 62 L.Ed.2d 146 (1979). "Principles of judicial restraint preclude us from creating a new statutory cause of action that does not exist at common law where the legislature has not either by the statute's express terms or by implication provided for civil tort liability." Bruegger v. Faribault County Sheriff's Dep't, 497 N.W.2d 260, 262 (Minn.1993) (holding that the Crime Victims Reparations Act does not create a private cause of action against law enforcement agencies that fail to inform crime victims of their right to seek reparations).

Child abuse was recognized as a medical diagnosis at least as early as 1962 with the publication of Dr. C. Henry Kempe's report, *208 "The Battered Child Syndrome." Victor I. Vieth, Passover in Minnesota: Mandated Reporting and the Unequal Protection of Abused Children, 24 Wm. Mitchell L.Rev. 131, 134-35 (1998). Vieth also noted that "[c]oinciding with Kempe's work, the [federal] Children's Bureau of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare considered a model child abuse reporting statute which was developed in 1963. Two other model laws were developed in 1965 * * *." Id. at 135. By 1967, all fifty states, the District of Columbia, and the Virgin Islands had enacted some sort of mandated reporting statute. Id. Today, all states have a reporting statute that imposes a criminal penalty for failing to report child abuse as a means to enforce the law. Steven J. Singley, Failure to Report Suspected Child Abuse: Civil Liability of Mandated Reporters, 19 J. Juv. L. 236, 238-39 (1998). Statutes in seven states — Arkansas, Colorado, Iowa, Michigan, Montana, New York, and Rhode Island — also impose civil liability. Singley, supra, at 239 n. 12. The vast majority of courts outside of these seven states have held that their reporting statutes do not create a civil cause of action.^[5] Regardless of what other courts do, we must base our decision on the best public policy for the State of Minnesota. See Larson v. Dunn, 460 N.W.2d 39, 44 (Minn.1990) (declining to create a new tort, "intentional interference with custodial rights," even though the trend in other states was toward recognizing the tort).

CARA provides that a mandatory reporter who "knows or has reason to believe" that a child is being neglected or abused "shall immediately report the information to the local welfare agency" or local law enforcement. Minn.Stat. § 626.556, subd. 3(a) (2006). "Mandatory reporters" include doctors, nurses, social workers, child care providers, teachers, law enforcement officers, and clergy. Id. A mandatory reporter "who knows or has reason to believe that a child is neglected or physically or sexually abused * * * and fails to report is guilty of a misdemeanor." Minn. Stat. § 626.556, subd. 6(a) (2006). CARA says nothing about civil penalties for failure to report.

We conclude that CARA's text is unambiguous. The plain language of the statute indicates that the legislature chose to impose criminal, but not civil, penalties on mandatory reporters who fail to report. Other language in CARA demonstrates that the legislature expressly creates civil liability when it intends to do so. In the subdivision of CARA immediately adjacent to subdivision 6(a), the legislature created civil liability for making a malicious or reckless report of child abuse. Minn.Stat. § 626.556, subd. 5 (2006). It also did so in the immediately adjacent statute, the Vulnerable Adults Reporting Act, for failure to report abuse of a vulnerable adult. Minn.Stat. § 626.557, subd. 7 (2006). For *209 the forgoing reasons, we cannot conclude that the legislature "implied" a cause of action that it chose not to include in the statute. See W. Page Keeton, et. al., Prosser and Keeton on the Law of Torts § 36, at 221 (5th ed. 1984) ("The obvious conclusion must usually be that when the legislators said nothing about it, they either did not have the civil suit in mind at all, or deliberately omitted to provide for it."). We therefore conclude that CARA does not create civil liability.

B. Radke

Our decision in Radke is consistent with our conclusion with respect to CARA. In Radke, we held that a civil cause of action will lie against a county for negligence in investigating reports of child abuse as required by CARA. 694 N.W.2d at 798. Makaio Radke was an infant abused by his mother's live-in friend. Id. at 791. Makaio's physician and father both repeatedly reported the suspected abuse to county authorities, who repeatedly visited Makaio at home but did nothing to prevent the abuse. Id. at 791-92. Makaio was eventually beaten to death. Id. at 792. Makaio's father sued Freeborn County, among others, asserting that the county owed a special duty to Makaio to act with care in investigating reports of abuse. Id.

The district court granted the county's motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim on which relief could be granted, and the court of appeals affirmed. Id. at 792-3. The court of appeals held that "[t]he legislature did not expressly or impliedly create a civil cause of action" under CARA. Radke v. County of Freeborn, 676 N.W.2d 295, 301, (Minn.App.2004), rev'd, 694 N.W.2d at 799. The court relied on our holding in Hoppe v. Kandiyohi County, 543 N.W.2d 635 (Minn.1996), that the Vulnerable Adults Reporting Act did not confer a private cause of action for failure to conduct timely investigations on reports of abuse to vulnerable adults. Radke, 676 N.W.2d at 301.

We reversed the court of appeals, holding that the county owed a special duty to Makaio under CARA and that Makaio's father could maintain a private cause of action. Radke, 694 N.W.2d at 798-99. In Radke, we analyzed the four factors^[6] set forth in Cracraft v. City of St. Louis Park, 279 N.W.2d 801 (Minn.1979), to determine whether a statute creates a special duty between a governmental unit and an individual. Radke, 694 N.W.2d at 794. We held that the third Cracraft factor — whether the statute set forth mandatory acts for the protection of a particular class of persons — was met because CARA "clearly and repeatedly requires the performance of mandatory acts" and because those acts were for the protection of "a particular class of persons-children who are identified as abused or neglected." Id. at 797. We also held that the first Cracraft factor — whether the county had actual knowledge — was met because the county received numerous reports of suspected abuse. Id. We could not conclusively determine whether the second factor — whether there was reasonable reliance on the county's representations and conduct — was met. Id. at 797-98. While the fourth factor — whether the county increased the *210 risk of harm — was not met, we concluded that failure to meet this factor was not dispositive. Id. at 798.

Because the third Cracraft factor was "overwhelmingly dominant," we held that the county owed Makaio a special duty. Id. Given the legislature's express intent to provide safety and protection for children through the immediate action of county child protection workers, we said that

it is incongruous to conclude that the legislature intended to impose criminal penalties on those persons who fail to report as mandated under the statute, but intended that there be no duty on the part of the county welfare department or its employees to investigate or act on the reports.

Id. In so holding, we overruled Hoppe. Id. at 799.

The Beckers acknowledge that Radke only recognized a cause of action for failure by a county to investigate and intervene once suspected abuse has been reported. But they nonetheless argue that because reporting is the only event that can initiate the investigatory process, "it is incongruous to conclude that the legislature intended to impose only criminal penalties on those persons who fail to report as mandated under the statute." We are not persuaded by the Beckers' argument.

Radke reconciled the incongruity between imposing criminal sanctions on mandatory reporters and imposing no sanctions whatsoever on investigators. But there is no manifest incongruity in imposing criminal, but not civil, liability on mandatory reporters. Here, the legislature chose to encourage reporting of suspected child abuse with the threat of criminal liability alone, and we must assume that the legislature had good reason for doing so. Accordingly, we conclude that Radke does not explicitly or by implication support the Beckers' claim that we must recognize a private cause of action under CARA for failure to report suspected child abuse.

C. Policy arguments

Having concluded that CARA is unambiguous notwithstanding our decision in Radke, we normally would not address the policy issues that the Beckers' have raised. Nevertheless, because these arguments focus on how we as a society through legislative action deal with the issue of protecting abused children, we will address these policy arguments.

The Beckers and several amici argue that for CARA to fulfill its stated purpose of protecting abused children, health care providers who are the "first line of protection" for abused children must be encouraged to report suspected abuse and the way to do so is to use the threat of civil liability. Mayo responds that this argument is better directed to the legislature, which can use its fact-finding power to determine how to best prevent child abuse.

The idea that the threat of civil liability will lead inexorably to increased reporting, and that this will reduce child abuse, has a certain appeal, but this appeal may be illusory. At least one commentator has suggested that imposing civil liability for failure to report is actually counterproductive, because it will "substantially contribute[ ] to the case overload of Child Protective Services [ ] and to unsubstantiated reports, which ultimately work against children in danger." Singley, supra, at 237. We are not unmindful of the tragedy of child abuse in our society; however, in this area of the law, where important interests are at stake and the effects of an expansion of the law are unclear, we leave it to the legislature with its fact-finding power to determine whether civil liability is appropriate.

*211 The Beckers also argue that CARA's criminal penalties lack force because mandatory reporters are rarely, if ever, prosecuted. Although the lack of actual prosecutions for failure to report child abuse may be troubling, it does not influence our analysis in this case. The Beckers do not cite, and we have not found, any precedent allowing our court to create civil liability because the state executive branch is not adequately enforcing the criminal law.

The Beckers and amici also refer to Minn.Stat. § 626.556, subd. 4(a) (2006), in support of their policy argument that we should recognize civil liability for mandatory reporters under CARA. Subdivision 4(a) grants civil and criminal immunity to good faith reporters of child abuse. The Beckers assert that this grant of civil immunity demonstrates a legislative intent to impose civil liability for failure to report abuse. We disagree. Subdivision 4(a) grants civil immunity to those who report; it says nothing about those who fail to report. If the legislature had intended to create civil liability for failure to report, we would expect the immunity provision to expressly disclaim civil immunity for such a failure. If anything, the absence of an express disclaimer affirms what subdivision 3(a) makes clear — the legislature did not intend to impose civil liability for failure to report suspected child abuse. In addition, there is ample pre-existing civil liability from which the immunity provision provides shelter. Physicians who report abuse, for example, would ordinarily face civil liability for violating doctor-patient confidentiality or for making a report that ultimately turns out to be unfounded.

For all the foregoing reasons, we hold that CARA does not create a civil cause of action for failure to report suspected child abuse.

II.

We next address the Beckers' claim that Mayo had a "special relationship" with Nykkole that created a duty to protect her from further injuries at the hands of her parents. Mayo asserts that no such relationship existed and that it had no such duty.

As a threshold matter, Mayo argues that the Beckers forfeited the special relationship argument by not raising it before the district court. We have stated that theories not raised at trial cannot be raised for the first time on appeal. Stumne v. Village Sports & Gas, 309 Minn. 551, 553, 243 N.W.2d 329, 330 (1976). Further, the court of appeals has held that "[a] party may not raise an issue for the first time in a motion for new trial." In re Trusteeship of Trust of Williams, 631 N.W.2d 398, 407 (Minn.App.2001). On the other hand, we have held that "[t]he duty or degree of care imposed on a party is fundamental law and objections to instructions relative thereto could be assigned for the first time in a motion for new trial." Urban v. Minneapolis St. Ry. Co., 256 Minn. 1, 4, 96 N.W.2d 698, 700 (Minn.1959); see also Marriage of Gottsacker v. Gottsacker, 664 N.W.2d 848, 859 (Minn.2003) (noting that the court of appeals has consistently held that a post-trial motion based on a theory of recovery not raised at trial is properly denied, but analyzing the merits of the claim anyway). In this proceeding, the court of appeals held that the special relationship issue was properly before it because the Beckers raised the issue in their Memorandum of Law in support of their motion for a new trial. Becker, 2005 WL 3527163, at *4; see Minn. R. Civ.App. P. 110.01 (stating that the record on appeal consists of all papers filed in the trial court). Because the issue is important and has been fully briefed by both parties, we will address it.

*212 Substantively, Mayo argues that there is no special relationship between Nykkole and Mayo because Nykkole was harmed at home, not at the hospital. The court of appeals agreed, noting that "[c]ases holding that a hospital has a special relationship with a patient are limited to situations where the patient was admitted and harmed by others while in the custody of the hospital." Becker, 2005 WL 3527163, at *5. While acknowledging that it was "no easy decision," the court reasoned that because "Nykkole was not harmed while in custody of the hospital but was harmed while in the custody of her parents," there was no special relationship. Id.

The existence of a duty is a question of law we decide de novo. Larson v. Larson, 373 N.W.2d 287, 289 (Minn.1985). The general common law rule is that a person does not have a duty to give aid or protection to another or to warn or protect others from harm caused by a third party's conduct. Delgado v. Lohmar, 289 N.W.2d 479, 483-84 (Minn.1979). An exception to this general rule arises when the harm is foreseeable^[7] and a special relationship exists between the actor and the person seeking protection. Erickson v. Curtis Inv. Co., 447 N.W.2d 165, 168-69 (Minn. 1989). These circumstances create a duty to protect. In Donaldson v. Young Women's Christian Ass'n, we said: "[t]ypically, the plaintiff is in some respect particularly vulnerable and dependent on the defendant, who in turn holds considerable power over the plaintiff's welfare." 539 N.W.2d 789, 792 (Minn.1995); see also H.B. ex rel. Clark v. Whittemore, 552 N.W.2d 705, 708 (Minn.1996) (citing Restatement (Second) of Torts § 314A cmt. b (1965)). The Restatement recognizes four types of special relationships: (1) common carrier and passenger; (2) innkeeper and guest; (3) possessor of land who holds it open to the public and invitee; and (4) where either one who is required by law or one who voluntarily takes custody of another under circumstances such as to deprive the other of his normal opportunities for protection. Restatement (Second) of Torts § 314A (1965).^[8] "[I]t should be recognized that `duty' is not sacrosanct in itself, but is only an expression of the sum total of those considerations of policy which lead the law to say that the plaintiff is entitled to protection." Keeton, et al., supra, § 53, at 358.

We have considered assertions of special relationships in several cases. In Whittemore, we held that a trailer park manager did not have a duty to report to outside authorities that children residing in the park were being sexually abused. 552 N.W.2d at 708-09. We noted that the park manager did not accept the children's entrustment, that the children were not in the manager's custody, and that the manager exercised no control over the children's daily welfare. Id. Similarly, in Donaldson, we held that the YWCA owed no duty to prevent residents from committing suicide because the YWCA had no custody or control of its guests and guests had no dependence on the YWCA. 539 N.W.2d at 793. In Harper v. Herman, we found no special relationship between a boat owner and his guest, and thus no duty on the boat owner to warn of the dangers of diving in shallow water. 499 N.W.2d 472 (Minn.1993). We observed that the guest was not particularly vulnerable and that the boat owner had no power over the passenger's welfare and did not stand to gain financially by having him on the boat. *213 Id. at 474. But in Erickson, we held that because of the "unique opportunity for criminals and their criminal activities" in a parking ramp, a parking ramp owner owed a duty to use reasonable care to deter criminal activity on its premises. 447 N.W.2d at 169.

We have also considered the scope of the duties owed a patient by a hospital. See Clements v. Swedish Hosp., 252 Minn. 1, 89 N.W.2d 162 (1958) (holding that a hospital does not assume responsibility for treatment of a patient's mental disturbance leading to a suicide attempt when the patient is admitted for treatment of injuries sustained in an automobile accident); Sylvester v. Northwestern Hosp., 236 Minn. 384, 386, 53 N.W.2d 17, 19 (1952) (holding that a hospital is liable for damages suffered by one of its patients when another patient assaults her because the reasonable care to be exercised by a hospital "must always be in proportion to the patient's inability to look after his own safety"); Mesedahl v. St. Luke's Hosp. Ass'n, 194 Minn. 198, 259 N.W. 819 (1935) (holding that a hospital has a duty to use reasonable care to prevent a patient's suicide if a reasonably prudent person under the circumstances should have anticipated a suicide attempt). As the court of appeals observed, Sylvester and Mesedahl involved inpatients over whom the hospital had custody to some degree. More importantly, those cases identified a duty on the hospital to protect patients from harm that occurred at the hospital and was within the hospital's control.

The factors we have consistently examined when confronted with a special relationship claim are the vulnerability and dependency of the individual, the power exerted by the defendant, and the degree to which the defendant has deprived the plaintiff of her ordinary means of protection. Some of these factors arguably weigh in favor of recognizing a special relationship in this case. A two-month old child is unquestionably vulnerable. Further, an abused two-month-old child is unlikely to come into contact with other mandatory reporters such as educators or clergy, and so is completely dependent on her treating physicians to discover and prevent further abuse. Nykkole could not be said to have been deprived of ordinary means of protection, however, because she never had any such means.

On the other hand, Whittemore suggests that there was no special relationship here. It is unlikely that Mayo intended to accept absolute authority over Nykkole; Mayo only intended to treat her for the discrete injuries she presented. Mayo did not exercise control over Nykkole's daily welfare — her parents did. Furthermore, the cases recognizing a special relationship (Erickson, Sylvester, and Mesedahl<