Filetech S.A.R.L. v. France Telecom

MEMORANDUM OPINION AND ORDER

This case presents the question whether a French corporation and its American subsidiary may invoke the antitrust laws of the United States in order to complain of the conduct of an entity of the Republic of France that occurred, and is occurring, almost entirely in France. The case is before the Court on defendants’ motion to dismiss the complaint.

I

Plaintiff Filetech S.A.R.L. (“Filetech”) is a French corporation formed in 1988 by Guy Birenbaum, a resident of France and a citizen of France and Canada. In Filetech’s words, its business purpose is “to create a data base which would include virtually every resident person, entity, or business in France, from which innovative marketing services could be created for a worldwide clientele.” Complaint, ¶ 18.

Those “innovative marketing services” consist primarily of the direct mailing of unsolicited communications to French residents, businesses and entities, the mailers having purchased from Filetech that all-inclusive French data base that Filetech hopes to create.

Filetech formed its subsidiary, plaintiff Filetech U.S.A., Inc. (“Filetech U.S.A.”), a New York corporation, to locate and contract with American businesses interested in direct mail marketing to potential customers in France. I will on occasion refer to the plaintiffs collectively as “Filetech.”

Defendant France Telecom is an independent public legal entity created and wholly owned by the Republic of France. France Telecom owns and operates all fixed telephone services in France. Defendant France Telecom, Inc. (“Telecom Inc.”) is a wholly-owned subsidiary of Telecom, with its principal place of business in New York. I will on occasion refer to the defendants collectively as “France Telecom.”

A

France Telecom engages in other commercial activities in addition to its fixed telephonic services business. One of these is the sale of access to its data base of telephone subscribers for the purpose of developing marketing lists. France Telecom engages in that' business by means of two services known as “Marketis” and “Teladresses.” I will describe them more fully infra. But it is first necessary to describe the genesis and purpose of a compilation, known as the “Orange List,” that lies at the heart of this case.

The genesis and purpose of the Orange List may be traced to a series of French statutes and regulations. Article 7 of France Telecom’s charter provides that when marketing the data contained in its directories, France Telecom “must comply with any legislative or governmental regulations protecting human identity, individual and civil rights and privacy.” 1 There are a number of pertinent laws and regulations.

In 1978, the French legislature enacted the Data Processing and Individual Rights Law (“the Data Processing Act.”). That act created a governmental agency called (in translation) the “Data Processing and Individual Rights National Commission,”, and popularly known as the “CNIL,” reflecting its French acronym. The CNIL regulates public and private data processing activities in France. Before conducting such activities, public entities like France Telecom and private entities *467 like Filetech must apply to and receive from CNIL the requisite permission or acknowledgment. The Data Processing Act prohibits, inter alia, the gathering of data through fraudulent, unfair or illicit means, and empowers any individual to refuse, for legitimate reasons, the processing by computer of personal data about him. Persons processing personal data on a computer must ensure the security of the data and prevent it from being divulged to unauthorized third persons. Breach of the Act’s provisions is punishable under the French Penal Code.

France Telecom’s charter from the French government permits it, inter alia, to market its electronic telephone directory, accessible by computer, to third parties. In December 1990, the French legislature amended the Postal and Telecommunications Code (“the PTT Code”) to allow the publishing of telephone subscribers or users lists, subject to the filing by publishers of telephone directories of an undertaking to comply with Article R. 10 of the PTT Code.

France Telecom itself operates under comparable restrictions. Article 7 of its charter provides that “France Telecom, when marketing the data contained in its directories, must comply with any legislative or governmental regulations protecting human identity, individual and civil rights and property ...” That requirement implicates Article R. 10-1 of the PTT Code, which was amended in December 1990 to provide in pertinent part as follows:

“All persons subscribing pursuant to the conditions set forth in Articles D.317 and D.284, may ... request, without being liable to pay any fee, not to appear on the lists extracted from the telephone book and marketed by [France Telecom] ... The use by anyone, of information extracted from the telephone book concerning persons mentioned in the previous paragraph, for commercial purposes or for public diffusion, is prohibited.”

This law requires France Telecom to honor the wishes of subscribers who do not want their names to be revealed to anyone for marketing purposes. The record reveals that significant numbers of French residents hold that preference; a sentiment not unknown in the United States, where unsolicited direct marketing mailings frequently fill-mailboxes to overflowing.

Obedient to Article R. 10-1 of the PTT Code, France Telecom maintains a list of French telephone subscribers who, prompted by a desire for privacy, have directed an Article R. 10-1 request to France Telecom. For reasons not revealed by the record, this is known as the “Orange List.”'

There is another color-coded French regulatory act upon which France Telecom relies. On May 12, 1992, the CNIL adopted Resolution No. 92-049 approving the “Saffron List.” The Saffron List contains the names of France Telecom subscribers who do not wish to be bothered by advertisements sent by fax or telex. The CNIL stated in its resolution that:

communicating the Saffron List would amount to making public a behavioral database devoted to persons hostile to commercial canvassing'and could be detrimental to said persons. As such, the Saffron List can only be communicated indirectly, either via transmission of the entire list of telex/fax subscribers cleansed of the Saffron subscribers or by cleansing of those lists which will be communicated to France Telecom. (In translation; see Henrot Decl. at ¶ 17).

France Telecom says that this resolution of a French regulatory agency, although dealing with a different protected list, declares policy considerations that also resonate in the case at bar.

B

The effect of Article R. 10-1 as originally promulgated was to prohibit France Telecom from providing the names and addresses of subscribers included in the Orange List to any third party for any purpose. Another company, wishing to. publish its own telephone directories, brought an action in the French courts invoking the antitrust rules contained in the European Union treaty. In February, 1994 the Court of Appeals of Paris decided CMS v. France Telecom, a ease commenced by a non-party to the instant action which competed with France Telecom by *468 publishing telephone directories. In CMS the Court of Appeals of Paris held that notwithstanding Article R. 10-1 of the PTT Code, the European Union treaty antitrust rules embodied in the Treaty of Rome obligated France Telecom to make its entire non-cleansed directory of telephone subscribers (that is to say, including names and addresses contained on the Orange List) to competing independent publishers of telephone directories.

At the time of the briefing of the instant motion, an appeal from this decision was pending before the French Supreme Court of Appeal. In a judgment pronounced on May 6, 1996, the Supreme Court affirmed the holding of the Court of Appeals. The Supreme Court looked to the Treaty of Rome as establishing “the primacy of the principles of community law over national law,” and, “without assessing the legality of article R. 10-1 of the [PTT],” concluded inter alia that “the Court of Appeal rightly ruled that the regulation could not hinder the free exercise of competition with respect to the publication of lists of subscribers by publishers of directories in competition with that published by the public company [France Telecom], which includes the names of persons appearing on the orange list.” (Translation from the French text furnished by Filetech.)

While this appeal to the French Supreme Court was pending, the French government responded to the decision of the Court of Appeals of Paris in CMS v. France Telecom decision by modifying Article R. 10-1 of the PTT, effective May 6, 1994. The article’s first paragraph reiterates the right of a telephone subscriber to request, without payment of fee, “not to be mentioned on the excerpts of the subscribers’ lists marketed by [France Telecom].” The second paragraph of Article R. 10-1 as modified reads:

“It is forbidden for anyone to use for commercial purposes or to divulge to the public the personal data extracted from the subscribers’ lists mentioned in the preceding paragraph. However such data may be used for the sole purpose of publishing lists of users mentioned at article R. 10.”

France Telecom contends on this motion that the combined effect of the CMS decision and the 1994 modification of Article R. 10-1 of the PTT Code is to permit 2 France Telecom to communicate data containing the Orange List subscribers to third parties for the limited purpose of “publishing telephone directories.” Main Brief at 14. But the Orange List data thus communicated “is communicated only embedded in the complete data base (that is, there in [sic] no separate communication of the Orange List as such).” Id. In France Telecom’s view, under French law “[n]either France Telecom nor anyone else may use or communicate the Orange List or data in it for any other commercial purpose.” Id. Those restrictions are said to arise from the modified version of Article R. 10-1, viewed in the larger context of the Data Processing Act, CNIL regulations, and the Penal Code.

In this regulated world, as it professes to perceive it, France Telecom says that it tries “to make its subscriber data base available to providers of marketing lists and at the same time comply in good faith with all of the above statutes and regulations.” Main Brief at 15 (citing affidavits submitted by France Telecom in support of its motion). Under the procedure adopted to achieve that proclaimed goal, which France Telecom describes as “the fairest permissible approach,” France Telecom “prepares a data base of its subscribers ‘cleansed’ of the Orange List, and it sells that ‘cleansed’ data base to all on equal terms (with a 15% discount for brokers) through the Marketis and Teladresses services.” Id. France Telecom concludes, on a note of self-approval:

“By this method France Telecom avoids any prohibited use or communication of the names or persons or entities on the Orange List, and keeps their privacy sacrosanct. At the same time, France Telecom makes available to all who desire it, on *469 comparable commercial terms, the maximum amount of permitted information.” Id.

C '

It is now necessary to describe France Telecom’s Marketis and Teladresses services.

Marketis is a service accessible through a personal computer with a modem, or through the “Minitel,” a small computer terminal made available to France Telecom customers on request. A France Telecom customer, using Marketis through a private computer or a Minitel, can create a marketing list on his own computer, and that list will be cleansed of names on the Orange List. A France Telecom officer expresses the view that generally, Marketis is suitable only for creating relatively small or specialized marketing lists. Rimbault Deck, ¶ 5.

Teladresses is a non-electronie service which enables a customer to order from France Telecom a list with specified desired characteristics. France Telecom generates the list (again, cleansed of Orange List names) and sends it to the customer with a bill for its services. The Teladresses service is suitable for generating lists of hundreds of thousands or millions of names. Rimbault Deck, ¶ 7.

Filetech does not share France Telecom’s self-portrait of an entity trying in good faith to balance the interests of individual privacy and commercial competition.. In Filetech’s view, France Telecom’s protestation of concern for French citizens’ privacy is hypocritical; its true motive is to profit from an anti-competitive control over the Orange List.

Fileteeh’s discontent arises in this manner. Filetech wishes to obtain a French telephone directory cleansed of Orange List names to use in its dealings with customers in the direct marketing business. In order to copy France Telecom’s electronic directory, Filetech accessed the directory through the Minitel method, previously described. The first three minutes of Minitel use are free; France Telecom charges for the service thereafter. To copy , the entire France Telecom electronic directory and its periodic updates at minimum cost, Filetech has programmed a number of its computers to access Minitel, turn off after three minutes, and then re-engage the service. See Complaint, ¶¶ 31-32. That stratagem worked reasonably well, although Filetech adds in a plaintive footnote 2 to its complaint that while Filetech “is able to efficiently take advantage of the three minute threshold, the compilation of the entire data base and its updating, is still costly to it, since the time limit is often exceeded.” -

But Filetech’s problem is that it cannot use the full directory, thus obtained, because that uncleansed directory contains names on the Orange List, with no way of identifying them. That circumstance destroys the utility of the directory for direct marketing purposes since, Filetech alleges in its complaint at ¶ 3, “[w]ithout the ‘Orange List’ no one can use the telephone directory as a data base source for creating marketing lists because that directory contains the names of people whom it is illegal to solicit.” Filetech aptly analogizes the uncleansed directory to a mined field, with the Orange List constituting “the map setting out the location of those mines.” Id. France Telecom does not have this marketing problem because it has the map.

Filetech alleges that in an effort “to level the playing field,” Filetech has “repeatedly asked” France Telecom to either give it the Orange List, or sell to Filetech “from time to time at a competitive price” updated lists “of all the telephone subscribers from whom the Orange List people and entities have been deleted.” Complaint, ¶4. France Telecom has refused these requests; it will only make cleansed lists available to Filetech (and to all others) through the Marketis and Teladresses services. Filetech alleges that France Telecom pursues that course “knowing full well that no competitor could possibly survive or exist-if it has to acquire its data base at the cost of many millions of dollars.” Id. Filetech alleges that France Telecom “is determined to drive [Filetech] out of business”; hence this action in an American district court, filed in March 1995, invoking the remedies of American antitrust law.

D

Specifically, the Filetech interests charge France Telecom with monopolization in viola *470 tion of section 2 of the Sherman Act, 15 U.S.C. § 2, as amended by the Foreign Trade Anti-Trust Improvements Act, § 6a. Filetech defines the “relevant market” in which it competes as consisting of “data processing services for the creation of address lists intended to be used by clients for marketing purposes and where such lists are extrapolated from an exhaustive and constantly updated data base covering virtually every resident of France.” Complaint, ¶ 24. The Filetech plaintiffs seek treble damages and injunctive relief.

E

Before considering these claims in this Court in greater detail, it is first necessary to describe litigation between Filetech and France Telecom in the courts of France. The fact of the matter is that at least since 1992, and continuing today, Filetech and France Telecom have been suing each other in France on issues arising out of Filetech’s desired access to the Orange List. Pertinent proceedings involving Filetech and France Telecom have also taken place before French regulatory agencies. France Telecom has also engaged in litigation with third parties in the French courts which implicates certain disputes between Filetech and France Telecom. The following descriptive narrative of this French litigation is drawn from the parties’ briefs, affidavits, subsequent letters of counsel, and exhibits submitted on this motion.

In November 1992, Filetech applied to the Commercial Court of Paris for a temporary restraining order requiring France Telecom to provide Filetech with the Orange List. The Commercial Court denied that application.

In December 1992, Filetech made a similar application to the Conseil de La Concurrence (“Council on Competition”), a French regulatory agency comparable to the Federal Trade Commission in the United States. Filetech asserted antitrust claims against France Telecom based upon French or European Union law. The Conseil de la Concurrence denied Fileteeh’s request for immediate injunctive relief, concluding that Filetech had failed to show irreparable harm caused by France Telecom’s refusal to give it the Orange List. Apparently the Conseil has not yet rendered a decision on Filetech’s antitrust claims against France Telecom.

On January 5,1994, the Commercial Court of Paris denied Filetech’s request for an order requiring France Telecom to disclose the Orange List to Filetech or “cleanse” File-tech’s own list of telephone subscribers to remove the names on the Orange List. France Telecom and its legal advisor characterize that decision as holding “that French law prohibited disclosure of the Orange List to such as Filetech.” France Telecom’s Main Brief at 17, citing declaration of Emmanuel Michau at ¶ 8. Filetech appealed that order. On February 20, 1995, the Court of Appeals in Paris stayed proceedings in that action pending the outcome of criminal proceedings involving Filetech and Birenbaum, its chief executive officer.

France Telecom initiated those criminal proceedings when, on February 3, 1994, it requested the public prosecutor (the “procureur de la Republique”) of Nanterre, France to prosecute Filetech and Birenbaum for what France Telecom regarded as Filetech’s unauthorized copying of its data base, in violation of the Data Processing Act. On August 31, 1994, France Telecom initiated criminal proceedings on that basis against File-tech in the Criminal Court of Nanterre.

In a separate proceeding, on June 28,1994, the CNIL requested a French prosecutor to bring “criminal proceedings against certain of Filetech’s executives, charging them with illegally processing personal data without having obtained a receipt of acknowledgment from the CNIL, and with fraudulently collecting personal data.” France Telecom’s Main Brief at 18, citing Michau Declaration at ¶ 13.

Meanwhile, as noted supra, on February 7, 1994, the Court of Appeals of Paris delivered its judgment in CMS v. Telecom, which construed the antitrust rules in the European Union treaty to require France Telecom to give its entire non-cleansed directory of telephone subscribers to competing publishers of telephone directories, a decision resulting in the French Government’s modification of Ar- *471 tide R. 10-1 of the PTT. As also noted supra, the French Supreme Court affirmed the Court of Appeal’s judgment on May 6, 1996.

Trial went forward before the Criminal Court of Nanterre, France on the previously described criminal charges against Filetech and Birenbaum. On May 7, 1996, the three-judge panel hearing the case held that File-tech and Birenbaum were not guilty of those charges, reasoning that Article R. 10-1 of the PTT was unlawful as applied, since it violated .the antitrust articles of the Treaty of Rome which protect competition within the European Union. The Nanterre court dismissed the criminal charges and related civil charges asserted by France Telecom against Filetech and Birenbaum.

The public prosecutor and France Telecom appealed the judgment of the Nanterre court. The appeal was heard by the Court of Appeals of Versailles, which in a recent decision convicted Birenbaum and Filetech of. violating Article 226-18 of the French Penal Code, which punishes the violation of a person’s legitimate opposition to the’ data processing of information concerning that person. The Court of Appeals concluded that Birenbaum and Filetech violated the privacy rights of those who put themselves on the Orange List by including their names in marketing lists sold by Filetech to its clients. They were sentenced to pay fines. The Court of Appeals of Versailles does not appear to have directly addressed Filetech’s antitrust claims against France Telecom, holding that even if France Telecom violated French or European antitrust laws, that would not justify Filetech’s violation of people’s privacy rights. Birenbaum and File-tech have announced their intention to appeal this decision to the French Supreme Court.

American counsel for France Telecom also refer in their most recent motion papers to criminal charges and civil litigation brought in the French courts against one Sophie Bargain, described by counsel as “an individual also represented by Mr. Soffer [Filetech’s counsel] who operates a direct marketing lists business and who, like Filetech, has utilized the France Telecom directory (containing “Orange List” names) for the purpose of compiling marketing lists.” Letter of Francis J. Menton, Jr., dated June 25, 1996, at 2. This litigation took place in the courts of Rennes and Paris.

According to France Telecom’s counsel, the Rennes Court of Appeals “affirmed a lower court ruling finding Mrs. Bargain guilty of a criminal violation for processing and selling names which her business had downloaded from the France Telecom electronic directory, including names appearing on the “Orange List,” in a manner strikingly similar to that employed by plaintiffs in this action.” Id. at 2-3. Counsel acknowledge that “the Rennes court did not have jurisdiction to consider the antitrust issues surrounding France Telecom’s attempts to safeguard, names appearing on the Orange List,” id. at 2. Counsel go on to say that “in response” to the Rennes decision, Bargain applied to the Paris Court of First Instance for an injunction forcing France Telecom to turn the Orange List over to her. The Court of First Instance denied that application and the Court of Appeals of Paris affirmed. Id. at 3-4. I am given copies of all these French court decisions to ponder. France Telecom contends that these decisions support its interpretation of controlling French law..

Counsel for Filetech, responding to I’affaire Bargain, argue that Bargain’s business is materially different from that of Filetech, and that the governing principles of French law are more comprehensively expressed in the decision of the trial court in Nanterre.

The most recent addition to this bouillabaisse of French court and regulatory proceedings is described in a letter from File-tech’s American counsel, dated October 3, 1996, advising the Court that on September 13, 1996, following a “lengthy investigation” conducted by a French magistrate, the magistrate has indicted {“mis en examen ”) France Telecom for “having misused the Orange List in a manner incompatible with its lawful objective,” and for “having used its dominant position in the relevant market by selling lists at prices that exclude all competition.” Filetech’s counsel advises this Court that “France Telecom will be ordered to stand trial on these charges unless it can convince the same magistrate that he must *472 dismiss part or all of the counts in his indictment.” Letter of Ron S. Soffer dated October 3,1996 at 1. One assumes that this is the sort of examining magistrate whose role in French criminal procedure has recently come to the public’s attention in the aftermath of the death of the late Princess of Wales. So far as appears from the record on this motion, no further developments have taken place in this criminal proceeding against France Telecom.

In these circumstances, France Telecom and its American affiliate move to dismiss the complaint. The Notice of Motion refers only to “Rule 12(b)” of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure as authority for the motion. 3 The briefs state three grounds for dismissal, in this order: (1) a declination of jurisdiction under principles of international comity; (2) preclusion under the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (“FSIA”), 28 U.S.C. §§ 1602 et seq., of jurisdiction over the only defendant [France Telecom] “whose conduct is at issue”; and (3) a contention that the Sherman Act does not reach France Telecom’s challenged activities.

Fileteeh resists this motion in its entirety. I will consider the asserted grounds for dismissal in the order urged by France Telecom.

II

France Telecom’s first-stated basis for dismissal, to which it devotes the major portions of its briefs, is international comity.

It is somewhat puzzling that France Telecom does not base its first arguments for dismissal upon its contentions under the FSIA and the Sherman Act, since if either of those contentions is well taken the Court lacks subject matter jurisdiction, and according to the Supreme Court’s most recent decision on the subject, questions of comity do not arise unless subject matter jurisdiction is first established. See Hartford Fire Insurance Co. v. California, 509 U.S. 764, 797 n. 24, 113 S.Ct. 2891, 2909 n. 24, 125 L.Ed.2d 612 (1993) (“Justice Sealia contends that comity concerns figure into the prior analysis whether jurisdiction exists under the Sherman Act.... This contention is inconsistent with the general understanding that the Sherman Act covers foreign conduct producing a substantial intended effect in the United States, and that concerns of comity come into play, if at all, only after a court has determined that the acts complained of are subject to Sherman Act jurisdiction.” (emphasis added)). This procedural analysis is applicable to the case at bar, in which France Telecom challenges Sherman Act jurisdiction, on the ground that its activities “have not produced any direct, substantial, or reasonably foreseeable effects in the United States.” Main Brief at 38. And presumably the Supreme Court would apply the same procedural analysis to a case where subject matter jurisdiction is contested under the FSIA.

But I will place these mysteries aside and address France Telecom’s arguments in the order they present them, beginning with the contention that this Court should decline to exercise jurisdiction under principles of international comity.

A

It is now well settled that “the Sherman Act applies to foreign conduct that was meant to produce and did in fact produce some substantial effect in the United States.” Hartford Fire Insurance Co., 509 U.S. at 796, 113 S.Ct. at 2909. That domestic effect is a sine qua non of American antitrust jurisdiction, even if a defendant’s conduct in a foreign country would clearly violate Sherman Act principles. As the Ninth Circuit said recently, “[w]hen we examine foreign conduct to determine if there is an antitrust violation, our jurisdiction is not a foregone conclusion. When foreign conduct is involved, the courts customarily appraise its substantive antitrust significance only after deciding whether the Sherman Act asserts jurisdiction over it. Jurisdictional and substantive inquiries are not wholly indepen *473 dent.” Metro Industries Inc. v. Sammi Corp., 82 F.3d 839, 845 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 117 S.Ct. 181, 136 L.Ed.2d 120 (1996) (citations and internal quotation marks omitted). The Ninth Circuit has articulated “a jurisdictional rule of reason, to be applied to Sherman Act.claims arising out of foreign conduct.” Id. at 845-46 (citation and internal quotation marks omitted). The factors relevant to that jurisdictional rule of reason, widely adopted in other circuits including the Second, are known as the “Timberlane” factors, after the Ninth Circuit decisions giving voice to them. See Timberlane Lumber Co. v. Bank of America, 549 F.2d 597 (9th Cir.1976) (Timberlane I) and Timberlane Lumber Co. v. Bank of America, 749 F.2d 1378 (9th Cir.1984) (Timberlane II), cert. denied, 472 U.S. 1032, 105 S.Ct. 3514, 87 L.Ed.2d 643 (1985).

In Metro Industries, the Ninth Circuit summarized its Timberlane analysis. The jurisdictional rule of reason which determines the Sherman Act’s applicability to foreign conduct “requires the weighing of the answers to three questions:”

Does the alleged restraint affect, or was it intended to affect, the foreign commerce of the United States? Is it of such a type and magnitude so as to be cognizable as a violation of the Sherman Act? As a matter of international comity and fairness, should the extraterritorial jurisdiction of the United States be asserted to cover it?

Metro Industries, 82 F.3d at 846. “The comity question alone,” the Ninth Circuit continued in Metro Industries, citing Timberlane I, “requires the consideration of several elements, including:”

the degree of conflict with foreign law or policy, the nationality or allegiance of the parties and the locations or principal places of business of corporations, the extent to which enforcement by either state can be expected to achieve compliance, the relative significance of effects in the United States- as compared with those elsewhere, the extent to which there is explicit purpose to harm or affect American commerce, the foreseeability of such effect, and the relative importance to the violations charged of conduct within the United States as compared with conduct abroad-.

Id.

Second Circuit authority is in accord with the Ninth Circuit’s Timberlane comity principles. Indeed, Second Circuit caselaw presaged them. After referring to the “balancing tests” of Timberlane I, the court of appeals observed in O.N.E. Shipping Ltd. v. Flota Mercante Grancolombiana, S.A., 830 F.2d 449, 451 (2d Cir.1987), cert. denied, 488 U.S. 923, 109 S.Ct. 303, 102 L.Ed.2d 322 (1988), that “[t]he comity balancing test has been explicitly used in this Court. See Joseph Muller Corp. Zurich v. Societe Anonyme de Gerance et D’Armement, 451 F.2d 727 (2d Cir.1971) (per curiam), cert. denied, 406 U.S. 906, 92 S.Ct. 1609, 31 L.Ed.2d 816 (1972).” 4 In O.N.E. Shipping the district court applied Timberlane I in declining to assert antitrust jurisdiction over a case implicating protective legislation enacted by the Colombian Government. 830 F.2d at 451. The Second Circuit affirmed on the closely related act of state doctrine, id. at 452-53, but in the language first quoted, implicitly approved the Timber-lane factors.

In Trugman-Nash, Inc. v. New Zealand Dairy Board, 954 F.Supp. 733, 737 (S.D.N.Y.1997), I had occasion to consider “whether the Timberlane factors constitute controlling law in the Second Circuit.” Concluding that they did, I said:

The issuance in 1987 of the third text of the Restatement of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States adopted the seven-factor analysis which the Ninth Circuit had reiterated in [Timberlane II]. Restatement (Third) § 403(2). The Second Circuit applied these factors, derived from the Restatement, in United States v. Javino, 960 F.2d 1137, 1142-43 (2d Cir.1992). The Timberlane factors were applied by name by the district court in National Bank of Canada v. Interbank Card Association, 507 F.Supp. 1113, 1119-1121 (S.D.N.Y.1980), an opinion the Second Circuit affirmed at 666 F.2d 6 (2d Cir.1981).

*474 Id. Applying the Timberlane factors in Trugman-Nash, I dismissed Sherman Act claims arising out of the effect of New Zealand Government export laws. 5 See also Transnor (Bermuda) Ltd. v. BP North America Petroleum, 738 F.Supp. 1472, 1477 (S.D.N.Y.1990) (Conner, J.) (“In evaluating the interests of a foreign government prior to determining whether to assert jurisdiction over a transaction occurring outside the United States, the courts have generally applied a ‘jurisdictional rule of reason,’ which seeks to balance the competing interests asserted. The parties agree that the applicable principles of comity among nations is set forth in [Timberlane II ].”) 6 In Ensign-Bickford Co. v. ICI Explosives USA Inc., 817 F.Supp. 1018, 1032 (D.Conn.1993), District Judge Cabranes (as he then was) cited Timberlane II in dismissing a breach of contract claim against a Canadian corporation on grounds of international comity.

B

Thus it is apparent that in American antitrust jurisprudence, the Timberlane balancing tests have exerted a vital force in determining whether or not to apply Sherman Act jurisdiction to foreign conduct. But I must also consider whether that force has been vitiated by two more recent developments: the Supreme Court’s decision in Hartford Fire Insurance, and the enactment by Congress of the Foreign Trade Antitrust Improvements Act of 1982 (“FTAIA”), 15 U.S.C. § 6a.

(1) The Hartford Fire Insurance Case

In Hartford Fire Insurance, American plaintiffs asserted Sherman Act § 1 claims against, inter alia, English reinsurers resident in London, who allegedly conspired with others to boycott general liability insurers that used nonconforming insurance forms. Plaintiffs alleged that the conspiracy was specifically intended to restrict the terms of coverage of commercial general liability available in the United States. The district court, applying the Timberlane factors, dismissed the action. On appeal to the Ninth Circuit, the London reinsurers argued that the district court should have declined to exercise antitrust jurisdiction under the principle of international comity. While the Ninth Circuit reversed the district court and reinstated the action, 938 F.2d 919 (9th Cir.1991), it declared its continuing fealty to the Timberlane factors and to international comity as one of those factors. The Supreme Court summarized the Ninth Circuit’s holding on that aspect of the case at 509 U.S. at 797, 113 S.Ct. at 2909-10 (emphasis added):

The Court of Appeals agreed that courts should look to [the principle of international comity] in deciding whether to exercise jurisdiction under the Sherman Act. Id., at 932. This availed the London reinsurers nothing, however. To be sure, the Court of Appeals believed that “application of [American] antitrust laws to the London reinsurance market ‘would lead to significant conflict with English law and policy,’ ” “and that [s]uch a conflict, unless outweighed by other factors, would by itself be reason to decline exercise of jurisdiction.” Id., at 933 (citation omitted). But other factors, in the court’s view, including the London reinsurers’ express purpose to affect United States commerce and the substantial nature of the effect produced, outweighed the supposed conflict and required the exercise of jurisdiction in this litigation. Id., at 934. 7

I have emphasized the phrase “the supposed conflict” because the Supreme Court went on in Hartford Fire Insurance to make clear its view that no conflict existed between British and American law of a character to implicate principles of international comity. The Court said at 509 U.S. at 799, 113 S.Ct. at 2910-11 (citations and internal quotations omitted):

*475 The fact that conduct is lawful in the state in which it took place will not, of itself, bar application of the United States antitrust laws, even where the foreign state has a strong policy to permit or encourage such conduct. No conflict exists, for these purposes, where a person subject to regulation by two states can comply with the laws of both. Since the London reinsurers do not argue that British law requires them to act in some fashion prohibited by the law of the United States, or claim that their compliance with the laws of both countries is otherwise impossible, we see no conflict with British law.

Having said that, the Court took the pains to add:

We have no need in this litigation to address other considerations that might inform a decision to refrain, from the exercise of jurisdiction on grounds of international comity.

Id.

Other circuits that have considered the boundaries of comity analysis and the continuing validity of the Timberlane factors in the wake of Hartford Fire Insurance express somewhat different views. In United States v. Nippon Paper Industries Co., Ltd., 109 F.3d 1 (1st Cir.1997), petition for cert. filed, 65 U.S.L.W. 3839 (June 13, 1997), a criminal case, the government charged the defendant Japanese company and other coconspirators with agreeing “to fix the price of thermal fax paper throughout North America.” 109 F.3d at 2. The First Circuit upheld jurisdiction under § 1 of the Sherman Act on the ground that defendant’s activities, while committed abroad, had a substantial and intended effect within the United States, relying for that conclusion upon Hartford Fire Insurance. See 109 F.3d at 8-9. Rejecting the defendant’s appeal to international comity, the First Circuit said at 109 F.3d at 8 (emphasis added):

Comity is more an aspiration than a fixed rule, more a matter of grac