Coastal Aviation, Inc. v. Commander Aircraft Co.

OPINION AND ORDER

Plaintiff Coastal Aviation Incorporated (“Coastal”) brings this action against defendant Commander Aircraft Company (“Commander”), seeking $5,319,424 in damages arising out of an alleged breach of a contract for Coastal’s exclusive dealership rights to sell Commander airplanes. This court conducted a two-day bench trial on May 21-22, 1996. This opinion constitutes the court’s findings of fact and conclusions of law pursuant to Fed.R.Civ.P. 52(a). For reasons discussed below, we enter judgment in favor of defendant on all claims.

FINDINGS OF FACT

Plaintiff Coastal is a Connecticut corporation formed in 1985, with its principal place of business in Rye, New York, and is equally owned by three private investors, Rocco Ge-novese (“Genovese”), President; Kurt F. Os-theimer (“Ostheimer”), Vice President and Secretary; and William H. Morton (“Morton”), Vice President and Treasurer. Coastal was formed to serve as a distributor of aircraft manufactured by Aerospatiale General Aviation (“Aerospatiale”), a subsidiary of Socata S.A., a French corporation. Coastal has one salaried employee, Bruce Dorfman (“Dorfman”), Director of Sales and Marketing.

Coastal’s initial distributorship territory for Aerospatiale included New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Vermont, New Hampshire and Maine. Tr. 36. This territory was later expanded to include Florida, Georgia and Alabama. Id. 1 Coastal represented Aerospatiale in these ten states through its association with general aviation dealers. Coastal would pass on initial leads of potential purchasers of Aerospat-iale aircraft to the local dealer. The dealer would then follow-up the leads, and Coastal would help secure final sales. On this basis, Coastal and the dealer would share commissions.

Defendant Commander, a public corporation, was incorporated in Virginia in 1988, and has a principal place of business in Bethany, Oklahoma. Commander manufactures, markets and provides support services for single-engine, high-performance aircraft. The original Commander aircraft, the Commander 112, was designed by the General Aviation Division of Rockwell International Corporation (“Rockwell”) and received Federal Aviation Administration (“FAA”) approval in 1972. The Model 114 was certified in 1976 and the 114A in 1979. From 1972 to 1979, over 1,100 Model 112/114s were produced. Production was discontinued in 1979. In 1981 Rockwell sold its entire General Aviation Division to Gulfstream Aerospace Corporation. In 1985, Chrysler acquired Gulf-stream Aerospace Corporation. In 1988, Chrysler/Gulfstream sold the single-engine 112/114 product line to newly formed Commander. The assets acquired by Commander included the Rockwell 112/114 design data and FAA type certificates, production tooling to fabricate and assemble the 112/114 products, and a considerable inventory of fabricated and purchased parts suitable for spares and/or new aircraft production.

Coastal accounted for between 25% and 50% of Aerospatiale’s total United States sales of aviation products from 1988 to 1992, making it the largest Aerospatiale dealer of aviation products in the United States during those years. Tr. 10. Coastal sold basically two Aerospatiale models — the Trinidad and the Tobago. Tr. 15. The Trinidad was a *1054 single-engine, four-place, retractable-gear, low-wing model with a top speed of about 200 miles per hour, and in 1992 typically sold for $260,000 to $270,000. Tr. 16. The Tobago, a fixed landing gear model, sold for $125,000 to $150,000. Id.

Commander’s first new production model, the 114B, like the Trinidad model TB-20, was a single-engine, four-place, retractable-gear, low-wing aircraft, with a cruising speed of 184 miles per hour. The 114B was targeted slightly below the TB-20 in price. The TB-20 came in a turbo-charged version, called the TB-21. A comparable turbocharged version of the 114B was in its developmental stage in 1992. Coastal sold six new Trinidads in 1989; ten in 1990; seven in 1991; and two in 1992. Def. ex. A. 2

According to Genovese, the 114B offered several advantageous features that were lacking in the Trinidad. For example, the 114B had more head room and allowed easier entry and exit. Tr. 21. Also, the price of the 114B was less than that of the Trinidad. Tr. 23, 75-77. Although it was not quite as fast, it had a superior finish on the outside and superior styling inside. Id. From a marketing standpoint, the 114B’s American origin was appealing because of the perceived trend of Americans spending more money on domestic products. Tr. 23-24. On the other hand, the Trinidad had longer range, and more cabin width — albeit at the sacrifice of cabin height. Tr. 33.

The parties in this action had their introduction at least as early as 1989. Dorfinan and the principals of Coastal frequently saw Matt Goodman, Commander’s Vice President of Sales (“Goodman”), at various industry trade shows, such as the National Business Aircraft Association Convention. Tr. 17,108. At that time, product liability was a big problem in the general aviation business, and, according to Genovese, many said that it was product liability which had stifled the aviation industry. See Tr. 17, 109. In reaction to the product liability problem, Goodman had supported the idea of leasing aircraft in an attempt to shelter Commander from such liability. Tr. 17, 109-110. Accordingly, in 1989, Goodman contacted Coastal with a product brochure and an outline of a lease proposal. Coastal was immediately interested in Commander’s product.

Commander received FAA approval to manufacture and sell its newly designed 114B on May 4, 1992. By this time, Commander had worked out its liability concerns, and, rather than leasing, began recruiting dealers to sell the new aircraft. See Tr. 111.

Coastal’s claims against Commander arise out of this recruiting effort. On January 23, 1992 Goodman contacted Dorfinan, expressing Commander’s interest in selling, rather than leasing, its model 114B aircraft through a dealership network such as Coastal. Dorf-man, enthusiastic about a dealership involving Commander 114Bs, provided Goodman with Coastal’s record, and the two planned a meeting in New York. Shortly after the phone call, Goodman sent Dorfinan Commander’s standard form dealership agreement (“Dealership Agreement”) and the Commander dealer policy and procedures (“Procedures”), which contained the terms and conditions pursuant to which Commander would grant dealerships to sell 114Bs. See PI. ex. 1. Subsection 1.1 of the Dealership Agreement requires that the prospective dealer satisfy the provisions of the Procedures, pay a non-refundable $100 dealership fee, and execute and deliver the Dealership Agreement to Commander before a contract would be formed. Section 14.1 of the Dealership Agreement provides that the term of the Dealership Agreement is for three years, and section 14.2 of the Dealership Agreement provides that either party may terminate the Dealership Agreement, without cause, at any time after the eighteenth month of the term upon 30-days notice.

As planned, on February 17, 1992, Goodman and Dorfinan met for breakfast in Rye, New York. At that time, Dorfinan indicated that Coastal was interested in dealership territories in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Georgia, Alabama and Florida. Later that day, Genovese met with Goodman. *1055 Both meetings focussed on territory, pricing, dealer profit margins and payment terms. See Tr. 112-115. The parties discussed a retail price of $169,500 for the base aircraft. Tr. 112. Dorfman expressed some concern over Commander’s 15% dealer discount, Tr. 115, which was significantly lower than the 22.5% discount Coastal received on the sale of aircraft manufactured by Aerospatiale. As for territory, Goodman told Dorfman that Montana, North Carolina, California, Arizona, Texas, Kansas, Louisiana, Ohio, Massachusetts, Oregon and Florida were available. Tr. 114. Dorfman expressed interest in two territories: (1) New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania and (2) Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Maryland and Virginia. Tr. 115— 116. The parties agreed that ten aircraft per territory per year was a realistic sales target. Tr. 115-116.

On March 12, 1992, Morton, Genovese and Dorfman travelled to Commander’s production facility in Bethany, Oklahoma to attend the “roll-out” of the 114B. See Tr. 122-127. During their visit, the three met with Commander’s President, William Boettger (“Bo-ettger”) and Goodman to discuss terms of a possible agreement, with Coastal seeking higher profit margins than those that were discussed at the February 1992 meeting in Rye, New York. Tr. 38, 40,125, 258. Coastal deemed it very important to convince Commander to increase the dealer discount margin beyond the 15% previously discussed with Dorfman. See Tr. 39, 125. Coastal introduced the idea of using deferred letters of credit (“LCs”) to increase the effective dealer margin without increasing the 15% nominal margin stated in the Dealership Agreement. Tr. 40, 70, 125. As Genovese described, Coastal tried to “get a dollar value some other way that would equate to ... margin.” Tr. 40. Deferred LCs provided the advantage of allowing Coastal to take delivery of an airplane as a floor model or a demonstration model to enhance marketing, while deferring payment obligations until some time after delivery. Tr. 88, 92-93,118. Coastal had used this technique successfully ■with Aerospatiale, and hoped to repeat it with Commander. Tr. 91. Coastal had been able to squeeze additional margin out of its relationship with Aerospatiale also by performing its own avionic upgrades. Tr. 231. 3

After the visit, Morton sent a follow-up letter dated March 18, 1992 to Boettger expressing .interest in selling and supporting the 114Bs. See PI. ex. 4. In particular, Morton expressed an interest in dealerships in areas where Coastal already sold (through formal or informal relationships with local dealers) Aerospatiale aircraft:

[0]ur interest would be in the states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Florida. These are territories we currently work for the sale of new Aerospatiale General Aviation aircraft. Our unique showroom/sales representatives/service center systems of marketing has proven itself in the dynamics of current market demands. We believe this infrastructure could provide immediate sales of Commander Aircraft at a critical time in your growth.

Id.

In response, Boettger sent a letter to Morton dated March 19, 1992, addressing the territories suggested by Morton in his letter and gross margin discounts discussed earlier at the roll-out:

We have given considerable thought to your concerns about marketing margins sufficient to make the program work. Believe me when I say the margins for 1992 are the best compromise we can offer and we still have a big job in manufacturing to achieve our internal gross margin target. Our intent is to increase the marketing margins as fast as we can and we have committed to 1% per year for the next 5 *1056 years. If we can move faster we will. Much of that decision hinges on our cost control and the market acceptance of the 114B.

We should get a good feel for what our 1993 price can be this Summer. Our plan is to set 1993 prices and dealer margins before 10/1/92.

[I] hope you can accept our dealer program for 1992 for what it can be in the future. We need strong dealers to achieve our full sales potential, then we can all make a good profit from the 114B. I know [Goodman] would like to have Coastal covering much of the area of interest to you. We already have commitments for Florida and Pennsylvania. I have requested [Goodman] to reserve New York and New Jersey for Coastal until we have finished our discussions.

I will be focusing on finishing up the Type Certificate details and delivery of the first airplane the next two weeks. After that, I will be available to meet with you, glean all the constructive criticism you have, and establish a Commander territory for Coastal.

PL ex. 5.

While Boettger and Morton were exchanging letters, Dorfman and Goodman were engaged in their own discussions. On March 19,1992, Dorfman initiated a call to Goodman to see if Commander had reached a decision regarding an amendment to the dealer deposit requirement in the Dealership Agreement, and utilizing deferred LCs. Tr. 129. Goodman was not able to give Dorfman a definitive answer, Tr. 129-130, but in following-up on the phone conversation, Goodman sent a letter dated March 23, 1992 to Dorf-man, in which he discussed alternatives to Commander’s dealer deposit and payment schedule requirement:

I have had an opportunity since our last conversation to meet with Mr. Bill Boett-ger and members of our Executive board concerning the possible structuring of a delayed payment program for Coastal as outlined utilizing time generated letters of Credit for aircraft purchases. Unfortunately, it does not appear that this concept of aircraft payment plan will fit our requirements at this time for the Dealer program. I am sure you can understand the need for our Dealer deposit and aircraft payment schedule as established to meet our needs during this start-up production period.

Nevertheless, I want to reiterate our sincerity in forming a mutually beneficial arrangement with Coastal for the Dealership areas which would maximize your profit potential considering the business structure which you already have in place. I hope you are able to reconsider the impact of our Dealership program on your current business plan, and that the addition of the Commander Aircraft product line would become a valuable asset to your operation. We will perform according to the Dealer Policy and Procedures as previously outlined and work toward a common goal of spreading Dealer margins as soon as market share of the Commander 114B permits. Current marketing areas available and of interest to you are: New York, New Jersey, Virginia, Maryland[,] D.C., North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. We would welcome the input from Coastal and anticipate the Commander marketing segment of your Dealership would grow along with the Commander Aircraft Company marketing plan.

PL ex. 6. After receiving this letter, Dorf-man called Goodman, and expressed disappointment with the fact that deferred LCs would not be available. Tr. 132-133. Goodman responded that Coastal might be able to increase its effective margin with the ten percent parts override and upgrades. Tr. 133. Also, Goodman informed Dorfman that the Florida territory was being given to Diversified Aircraft Sales (“Diversified”), a competitor. Tr. 132.

After Boettger’s follow-up letter to Morton in which he stated “I have requested [Goodman] to reserve New York and New Jersey for Coastal until we have finished our discussions,” see Pl. ex. 5, on March 25, 1992, Goodman, without informing Boettger or anyone else at Commander, awarded New York and New Jersey (the “New York Area”) and Pennsylvania to a competitor, Braden’s Flying Service (“Braden’s”). See *1057 Tr. 139-143. On March 26, 1992, Goodman telephoned Dorfinan to let him know that Commander had awarded this territory to Braden’s. Tr. 139; PI. ex. 3. Though upset about losing the New York Area, Dorfinan inquired again about Florida. Tr. 143. Goodman confirmed that Florida had been committed to Diversified. Tr. 143.

That same day, Morton telephoned Boett-ger to learn why the New York Area dealership had been awarded to Braden’s. Tr. 269. Boettger apologized and expressed interest in doing business with Coastal in the remaining states (and the District of Columbia) in the southeast — Virginia, Maryland, District of Columbia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama.

On March 27, 1992, Dorfinan called Goodman to submit an offer to become a Commander dealer in the southeast United States. Dorfinan told Goodman that Coastal was prepared to make an offer for Florida, Georgia, Alabama, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia and West Virginia, and that Coastal would commit to take 10 aircraft in the first year, 20 in the second, and 30 in the third. Tr. 144. Goodman agreed to discuss the offer with Commander. Tr. 145.

On March 30, 1992, Goodman wrote a letter to Dorfinan in response to the March 27, 1992 phone call. See PL ex. 8. The letter stated that the offer was subject to approval of a third partner of Coastal, i.e., Ostheimer. According to Genovese, Ostheimer’s role was “very, very important” because his expertise was insurance and finance, and liability was a “key ... deterrent in ... general aviation.” Tr. 36. The letter summarized Commander’s understanding of Coastal’s potential offer:

1) Third partner approval from Coastal

2) Items 11 & 12, pertaining to insurance coverage for the dealer, reworded

3) First right of refusal on dealer opportunities north of New York

4) Commander Dealer program and deposit schedule as prescribed

5) 10 aircraft for year one, 20 aircraft for year two, 30 aircraft for year three, for the following marketing territory: MD, D.C., VA, NC, SC, GA, AL and subject to Florida.

PI. ex. 8. Goodman then addressed the above five terms as follows:

I believe the items in the Dealership contract you reference in regard to paragraphs 11 & 12 pertaining to insurance coverage for the Dealership can be reworded to meet your satisfaction as well as that of Commander Aircraft Company. I have no problem with providing Coastal Aviation right of first refusal should dealership opportunities open in the New England States to the north of your location in Rye, New York.

The agreement with Diversified Aircraft Sales is complete for the marketing area of Florida. I know that this area is a very strong presence for your company and a vital marketing area to perfect the flow of product through your organization.

At this time, I would like to propose an alternative program which would give Coastal Aviation the following marketing areas:

Maryland

D.C.

West Virginia

Virginia

North Carolina

South Carolina

Georgia

Alabama

[T]he aircraft orders for this area which would be appropriate for Coastal and Commander would be 10 aircraft per year during the term of the agreement.

I look forward to working with you, and sincerely hope that we may still lay a viable framework from around which Coast[al] Aviation may effectively market the Commander product line even without the marketing area of Florida.

I await your reply....

Id. “Third partner approval from Coastal,” meant approval by Ostheimer. See Tr. 147. “Items 11 & 12 ... reworded” pertained to insurance coverage for the dealer. Tr. 147. Coastal had been concerned that the Dealership Agreement was worded so that once an aircraft was manufactured by Commander and sold to Coastal, and then delivered to a *1058 customer, Coastal might be construed to be indemnifying the manufacturer from product liability. Tr. 147.

On the morning of April 6,1992, while at a trade show in Florida, Dorfman called Goodman and attempted to accept the terms of the March 30, 1992 letter. Tr. 97, 223, 225. (Dorfman had expected to meet Goodman in person at the trade show to accept his purported offer of March 30,1992, but Goodman did not attend. Tr. 225.) Dorfman testified that Goodman responded that he would call Coastal and arrange to come up the following week to bring all the documents and receive deposits for aircraft. Tr. 226. Apparently, on April 6, 1992, someone from Commander left a message with Morton regarding a problem with the purported offer. Tr. 281. Morton attempted to get in touch with Boett-ger, but to no avail. See Tr. 97-99, 278, 282. On April 7,1992, Morton wrote to Commander, “[confirming ... Dorfman’s telephone call [and to] accept [the] proposal.” See PL ex. 9; Tr. 282. Morton reiterated an interest in Florida, New York, New Jersey and other parts of New England, but was willing to accept a deal involving the states (and the District of Columbia) listed in Goodman’s letter dated March 30, 1992 (the “Southeast Territory”):

In referencing your letter, out- territory is to include the states of Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, D.C. and Maryland. As you request, we accept this proposal as demonstration of “Good Faith” in the interest of building upon our longer term relationship. To this end, we are hopeful in being able to add (at some future date) the additional states as previously discused [sic] with you, Bill Boettger and restated in the above paragraph.

After considerable expenditure of both time and money in working with your organization, we are pleased to now be a viable part of your “Marketing Department.”

PI. ex. 9.

That same day, on April 7, 1992, DeWitt Beckett (“Beckett”), a subordinate of Goodman, sent a letter to Morton, but did not refer either to Dorfman’s April 6,1992 phone call or to Morton’s April 7, 1992 letter, and instead proposed new terms for a possible dealership agreement. This letter reads in relevant part as follows:

As Director of Dealer Placement and Domestic Sales, it comes to my attention of your desire to pursue a Dealership for the Commander 114B. I am cognizant of past conversations and communications with Matt Goodman and Mr. Boettger, and am apologetic that I, personally have not communicated with you directly until this time....

[Y]our presence in New York, Georgia, and Florida under other circumstances would have been a great benefit in the entire marketing effort and Dealer Network that I am trying to establish as a viable organization for the long term. As the situation stands at this time, all of the areas of your primary interest and actual physical presence are under contract with other entities. In an effort to involve your organization in the sales of the Commander 114B the following is a proposal for your consideration and review....

THE MARKET AREA FOR CONSIDERATION:

The states of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, and the District of Columbia. NUMBER OF AIRCRAFT FOR THE TERM OF THE AGREEMENT: Year One — six (6); Year Two — eight (8); Year Three — ten (10).

ESTABLISHMENT OF PHYSICAL PRESENCE:

A staffed sales office located strategically in the territory. (A location such a[s] Raleigh, NC would be considered ideal.) RECIPROCAL ARRANGEMENT WITH TANGENT AREAS:

It is recommended that an arrangement be made between dealers in the tangent marketing areas to share retail leads that you may have generated in your other sales offices in those areas, so that all- dealers may take advantage of the demand for 114Bs.

More specifically, this marketing area is available at this time, April 7, 1992, and *1059 will remain open for your consideration only for the next seven days, which will bring us to April 14, 1992. I will consider this marketing area under a letter of intent until that time or your decline to consider this on the above basis.

PI. ex. 10.

Morton sent a facsimile to Beckett that same day indicating his confusion, and reaffirmed that he had already accepted Goodman’s original offer of March 30,1992:

We are puzzled by your recent communication dated April 7, 1992 ... as we have already agreed to accept Commander Aircraft’s proposal as outlined in Mat Goodman’s letter of March 30, 1992.... [W]e previously had been under the impression from correspondence received from Mr. Bill Boettger on March 19, 1992 that the territories of New York and New Jersey were to be reserved for Coastal “until we had finished our discussions.”

Obviously, we were shocked to learn New York and New Jersey were given to someone else....

In trying to overcome the loss of New York and New Jersey we made a proposal that included the states of Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, D.C., Maryland and Florida. Mat Goodman responded in writing offering us the above states, excluding Florida. His letter stated he would “await our reply.” Within five (5) business days we accepted this offer — and have done so in writing. Please note our response falls well within the time limit you placed upon your recent suggestion, although Mr. Goodman’s letter of March 30,1992 had no such stipulation.

We await notification as to when we will be receiving related paperwork and first aircraft.

PI. ex. 11.

The following day, Beckett faxed Morton, stating as follows:

In view of the communications of recent receipt it appears that you construed Mr. Goodman’s conversation with Mr. Dorfman as an acceptance of a letter proposal of March 30, 1992. In fact, Mr. Goodman stated that “he didn’t see why it wouldn’t work, but I will know better after our meeting this morning.” The meeting produced the signed contracts for the Georgia, Alabama area that I personally had negotiated and consummated during the previous number of days. Your office was notified immediately upon the evidence of those contracts including all of the areas that you had inquired about....

With further review of the situation, the communications, and the intent of all parties concerned, we hereby withdraw the letter of proposal of April 7, 1992, and any and all other communications that may be construed to be proposals. I do not believe that further pursuit of a dealership program with Coastal’s involvement would be beneficial to Coastal or Commander under present circumstances....

PI. ex. 12. This litigation followed. See PI. ex. 13.

In the first eighteen months following the alleged breach, twelve new 114Bs were sold in the United States by Commander and its distributors. Def. ex. VI. Of these, two were sold in the territories sought by Coastal (both in Maryland). Id. At trial, Coastal sought to prove damages of lost profits through expert testimony from Walter L. Zweifler (“Zweifler”), an economist/appraiser and Richard Lomas (“Lomas”), an accountant/attomey. See Tr. 171-222; PI. ex. 14 (“Zweifler Report”); Tr. 300-312; PI. ex. 34 (“Lomas Report”). Zweifler testified that Coastal suffered $1,350,000 in damages due to the loss of the New York Area franchise, and $1,350,000 for the loss of the Southeast Territory franchise. Lomas testified that Coastal suffered $1,156,440 in damages in lost profits from Commander’s breach of contract to sell 114Bs for the Southeast Territory, and $809,508 in lost profits from Commander’s breach of an option contract for the New York Area.

CONCLUSIONS OF LAW

A federal court sitting in diversity must apply the choice of law rules of the forum state. Klaxon Co. v. Stentor Elec. Mfg Co., 313 U.S. 487, 496, 61 S.Ct. 1020, 1021-22, 85 L.Ed. 1477 (1941); Rogers v. *1060 Grimaldi, 875 F.2d 994, 1002 (2d Cir.1989). In New York, choice of law issues involving contractual disputes are governed by an “interest analysis.” Wm. Passalacqua Builders, Inc. v. Resnick Developers South, Inc., 933 F.2d 131, 137 (2d Cir.1991). “ ‘[T]he law of the jurisdiction having the greatest interest in the litigation’ controls.” Id. (quoting Intercontinental Planning, Ltd. v. Daystrom, Inc., 24 N.Y.2d 372, 300 N.Y.S.2d 817, 825, 248 N.E.2d 576, 581-82 (1969)). In performing this analysis, a court should look to factors such as the place of (1) contracting, (2) negotiation of the contract, (3) performance, (4) the location of the subject matter of the contract, and (5) domicile, residence, nationality, place of incorporation, and place of business of the parties. Wm. Passalacqua Builders, 933 F.2d at 137. See also State Trading Corp. of India, Ltd. v. Assuranceforeningen Skuld, 921 F.2d 409, 417 (2d Cir.1990). In the instant case, both parties have assumed that New York law governs, as evidenced, for example, by reliance on New York law to support their respective contentions. Wm. Passalacqua Builders, 933 F.2d at 137. See also Walter E. Heller & Co. v. Video Innovations, Inc., 730 F.2d 50, 52 (2d Cir.1984) (under New York law, “in the absence of a strong countervailing public policy, the parties to litigation may consent by their conduct to the law to be applied.”); M.H. Segan Ltd. Partnership v. Hasbro, Inc., 924 F.Supp. 512, 522 (S.D.N.Y.1996) (same). We likewise assume that New York law governs this dispute.

Plaintiff Coastal asserts two breach of contract claims: (1) breach of an option contract for the sale of aircraft for the New York Area and (2) breach of a contract for the sale of aircraft for the Southeast Territory. Coastal seeks damages in lost profits for these purported breaches. In addition, Coastal seeks reimbursement for out-of-pocket expenses incurred when its officers travelled to the roll-out in Bethany, Oklahoma. See PL ex. 15. 4 At trial, Coastal submitted letters that were transmitted between the parties during negotiations. In addition, officers of Coastal testified regarding oral and written communications and negotiations that had taken place between the parties. Finally, Coastal produced two experts (Zweifler and Lomas) who testified as to the amount of damages suffered as a result of the purported breaches. Defendant Commander cross-examined Coastal’s witnesses, but produced no witnesses of its own. Commander maintains that Coastal has failed to prove that there was either an option contract for the New York Area or that there was a contract for the Southeast Territory. Commander also argues that, even assuming that Coastal has proved there was a contract for either or both of these areas, Coastal has failed to prove damages with the requisite level of certainty to recover under New York law.

I. CONTRACT FORMATION

To succeed in a breach of contract claim, four elements must be satisfied: the making of a contract, performance of the contract by the plaintiff, breach of the contract by the defendant, and damages suffered by the plaintiff. Machine-Outils Henri Line, Ltee v. Morey Machinery, Inc., 1996 WL 254863, at *6 (S.D.N.Y. May 14, 1996) (citing John Hancock Property and Cas. Ins. Co. v. Universale Reinsurance Co., 147 F.R.D. 40, 46 (S.D.N.Y.1993)); Van Brunt v. Rauschenberg, 799 F.Supp. 1467, 1470 (S.D.N.Y.1992). Commander challenges the first and fourth elements in this action.

Basic principles of contract law and Article 2 of the Uniform Commercial Code (“UCC”) as adopted by New York govern because the overall contract as alleged was predominantly for the sale and delivery of goods. See Long Island Lighting Co. v. Imo Indus., 6 F.3d 876, 887-88 (2d Cir.1993); Triangle Underwriters, Inc. v. Honeywell, Inc., 604 F.2d 737, 742-43 (2d Cir.1979); Machine-Outils, 1996 WL 254863, at *6; St. Anne-Nackawic Pulp Co. v. Research-Cottrell, Inc., 788 F.Supp. 729, 734 (S.D.N.Y.1992).

A. THE NEW YORK AREA OPTION

We first address Coastal’s claim that Commander granted it an option for the New York Area. Coastal rests this claim on Bo- *1061 ettger’s March 19, 1992 letter indicating that Boettger had requested Goodman to reserve the New York Area for Coastal during the pendency of their negotiations. See PI. ex. 5 (“I have requested [Goodman] to reserve New York and New Jersey for Coastal until we have finished our discussions.”).

“ ‘An option contract is an agreement to hold an offer open; it confers upon the optionee, for consideration paid, the right to purchase at a later date.’ ” Kaplan v. Lippman, 75 N.Y.2d 320, 552 N.Y.S.2d 903, 905, 552 N.E.2d 151, 153 (1990) (quoting Leonard v. Ickovic, 79 A.D.2d 603, 433 N.Y.S.2d 499, 500 (1980), aff'd, 55 N.Y.2d 727, 447 N.Y.S.2d 153, 431 N.E.2d 638 (1981)). Coastal has neither alleged nor argued that any consideration was paid for this purported option.

However, under New York law, a “firm offer” by a merchant can create an option contract enforceable against the merchant by the offeree, even in the absence of consideration:

An offer by a merchant to buy or sell goods in a signed writing which by its terms gives assurance that it will be held open is not revocable, for lack of consideration, during the time stated or if no time is stated for a reasonable time, but in no event may such period of irrevocability exceed three months; but any such term of assurance on a form supplied by the offeree must be separately signed by the offeror.

N.Y.U.C.C. § 2-205 (McKinney 1993). 5 Based on this section, Coastal argues that Boettger’s letter of March 19, 1992 creates a binding option contract under New York law in favor of Coastal. We disagree.

In order to establish an option under the merchant’s firm offer rule, there must be an “offer by a merchant to buy or sell goods in a signed writing which by its terms gives assurance that it will be held open.” N.Y.U.C.C. § 2-205 (McKinney 1993) (emphasis added); see also N.Y.Gen.Oblig.Law § 5-1109 (McKinney 1989). Boettger’s letter of March 19, 1992 is devoid of any offer within the meaning of section 2-205. Rather, Boettger relays a statement about a communication that occurred between him and Goodman. In so doing, Boettger merely expresses his willingness to reserve the New York Area for future discussions with Coastal in hopes of reaching an agreement for a dealership in that area. He conveys no assurance that the New York Area will be available, nor a commitment on the part of Commander to reserve the New York Area, for Coastal. An enforceable legal right cannot arise in contract without the expression of mutual consent to be bound. Teachers Ins. and Annuity Assoc. of America v. Tribune Co., 670 F.Supp. 491, 497 (S.D.N.Y.1987) (Leval, J.). We conclude that his statement does not evince an intent to be bound by a promise to hold the New York Area open for Coastal. Nor can Coastal argue that it reasonably relied on this statement to its detriment or suffered any damages as a result of Boettger’s statement that he had asked Goodman to reserve the New York Area for negotiations with Coastal. As such, we conclude that the evidence fails to establish the existence of an option for the sale of aircraft for a New York Area dealership.

B. THE SOUTHEAST TERRITORY

As for Coastal’s second claim, Commander asserts that Coastal’s failure to execute the standard form Dealership Agreement and abide by the Procedures bars its breach of contract claim for the Southeast Territory. Under the New York statute of frauds, a contract for the sale of goods for the price of $500 or more is not enforceable “unless there

*1062 is some writing sufficient to indicate that a contract for sale has been made between the parties and signed by the party against whom enforcement is sought or by his authorized agent or broker.” N.Y.U.C.C. § 2-201(1) (McKinney 1993). That section further provides that the only indispensable term in such a writing is quantity. Bazak Int’l Corp. v. Mast Indus., 73 N.Y.2d 113, 538 N.Y.S.2d 503, 505, 535 N.E.2d 633, 634-635 (1989).

Coastal claims that Goodman’s March 30, 1992 letter constitutes a written offer for the sale of ten Commander aircraft per year during the term of the agreement. Furthermore, Coastal asserts that Dorfman accepted this offer in an April 6, 1992 telephone conversation with Goodman, and the acceptance was confirmed by Coastal in a followup letter from Morton dated April 7, 1992. Addressing Commander’s statute of frauds defense, Judge Parker held earlier that Goodman’s March 30, 1992 letter and Morton’s April 7, 1992 letter presented “sufficient evidence to support a claim that a contract was formed.” Coastal Aviation, Inc. v. Commander Aircraft Co., 903 F.Supp. 591, 594 (S.D.N.Y.1995). That holding “[did] not establish as a matter of law that the contract alleged by Coastal was concluded between the parties. Instead, [the] holding mean[t] only that Coastal [was] not barred from attempting to prove that the parties entered into an official contract.” Id. Coastal was thus permitted to try and prove its claim that a contract was executed between the parties for the Southeast Territory. As the Second Circuit has articulated, the intention of the parties controls contract formation:

First, if the parties intended not to be bound until they have executed a formal document embodying their agreement, they will not be bound until then; and second, the mere fact that the parties contemplate memorializing their agreement in a formal document does not prevent their informal agreement from taking effect pri- or to that event.

Reprosystem, B.V. v. SCM Corp., 727 F.2d 257, 261 (2d Cir.1984) (citing V’Soske v. Barwick, 404 F.2d 495 (2d Cir.1968), cert. denied, 394 U.S. 921, 89 S.Ct. 1197, 22 L.Ed.2d 454 (1969)), cert. denied, 469 U.S. 828, 105 S.Ct. 110, 83 L.Ed.2d 54 (1984). In Tribune, Judge Leval considered whether the intent to be bound was revealed by (1) the language of the agreement; (2) the context of the negotiations; (3) the existence of open terms; (4) partial performance; and (5) the necessity of putting the agreement in final form, as indicated by the customary form of such transactions.