San Francisco Baykeeper v. United States Army Corps of Engineers

*1006 ORDER DENYING PLAINTIFFS’ MOTION FOR SUMMARY JUDGMENT; GRANTING DEFENDANTS’ CROSS MOTION FOR SUMMARY JUDGMENT

The case involves the environmental impact of two construction projects initiated by the Port of Oakland (Port). The first project, the Oakland Harbor Navigation Improvement Project (dredging project), is jointly funded by the Port and Defendant United States Army Corps of Engineers (Corps). It will deepen the channels and berths at the Port from forty-two feet to fifty feet. The second project, the berths project, will create four new container berths and two new cargo terminals at the Port. The berths project is dependant on receipt of a Corps permit to dredge and fill as necessary to create the new berths.

Because of the Corps’ involvement in the projects, the consultation provisions of both the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 42 U.S.C. § 4321 et seq., and the Endangered Species Act (ESA), 16 U.S.C. § 1531 et seq., are implicated. Plaintiffs move for summary judgment that Defendant federal agencies violated both NEPA and the ESA by failing adequately to analyze and disclose the potential environmental consequences of the projects. Defendants oppose the motion and cross-move for summary judgment that their consultation and analysis satisfied their statutory obligations. The matter was heard on July 26, 2002. Having considered all of the papers filed, by the parties and oral argument on the motion, the Court denies Plaintiffs’ motion for summary judgment (Docket #33) and grants Defendants’ cross motion for summary judgment (Docket # 49).

BACKGROUND

A. The Dredging Project and the Berths Project

The dredging project was initiated because the Port’s forty-two foot shipping channels and berths are too shallow to allow the latest generation of large, “post-Panamax” container ships to enter and exit the Port. 1 Absent the dredging project, post-Panamax ships either would have to enter the Port “light loaded” (i.e. with reduced cargo so that they would ride high in the water) or await high tides to enter and exit the Port. Alternatively, carriers could send only older, Panamax class vessels to Oakland. In order to provide modern and efficient shipping channels that could accommodate newer vessels, the Port and the Corps proposed the dredging project, which will deepen the channels and berths to a fifty foot depth. The dredging project is funded by both the Port and the Corps.

The berths project is an independent undertaking of the Port to create four new berths, two new container terminals and a shoreline park. The Port initiated this project as “one component of the Port’s ongoing efforts to modernize and develop its ship, rail, and truck cargo-handling facilities to meet the projected demand for transportation services .... ” Corps AR 1727. 2 The Corps is not undertaking any *1007 of the work in conjunction with the berths project. Rather, the Corps’ authority over this project is pursuant to section 404 of the Clean Water Act, 33 U.S.C. § 1344. Pursuant to this statute, the Port must receive a permit from the Corps for any dredging, filling and construction of facilities on submerged lands.

B. Statutory and Regulatory Requirements

In its capacity as the action agency with respect to the dredging project and the regulating agency with respect to the berths project, the Corps was required to satisfy statutory and regulatory obligations under NEPA and to engage in consultation with Defendant Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and Defendant National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) pursuant to section 7 of the ESA.

1. NEPA

NEPA is the basic “national charter for protecting the environment.” 40 C.F.R. § 1500.1(a). It requires all federal agencies to prepare an environmental impact statement (EIS) for “major federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment.” 42 U.S.C. § 4332(C). The responsible federal agency may first choose to prepare an environmental assessment (EA), a preliminary document which “briefly provides sufficient evidence and analysis for determining whether to prepare an environmental impact statement or a finding of no significant impact.” 40 C.F.R. § 1508.9. After considering the EA, the agency may then decide to issue either a finding of no significant impact (FONSI) or a more detailed EIS.

NEPA is procedural in nature. It does not require “that agencies achieve particular substantive environmental results.” Marsh v. Or. Natural Res. Council, 490 U.S. 360, 371, 109 S.Ct. 1851, 104 L.Ed.2d 377 (1989). Rather, it requires agencies to collect, analyze and disseminate information so that “the agency will not act on incomplete information, only to regret its decision after it is too late to correct.” Id. Federal agencies comply with NEPA by carrying out this procedural mandate.

2. ESA

Section 7 of the ESA, 16 U.S.C. § 1536, requires every federal agency to ensure that any action that it funds, authorizes, or carries out is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of any listed species or adversely modify the critical habitat of any such species. See also 50 C.F.R. § 402.01(a). FWS and NMFS (collectively, “consulting agencies”) share responsibility for administering the ESA, with FWS responsible for listing terrestrial and freshwater species, 50 C.F.R. § 222.23(a), and NMFS charged with protecting marine and anadromous species, 50 C.F.R. § 227.4. See also 50 C.F.R. § 402.01(b).

If a federal agency .determines that a proposed action may affect listed species or their critical habitat, the agency must initiate consultation with the appropriate consulting agency, either FWS or NMFS. 18 U.S.C. § 1536(a)(2) (codifying ESA § 7(a)(2)); see also 50 C.F.R. § 402.14(a). An action agency may satisfy the requirements of section 7(a)(2) by initiating either “informal” or “formal” consultation with the appropriate consulting agency. Informal consultation is “an optional process that includes all discussions, correspondence, etc., between the Service and the federal agency ... designed to assist the [action agency] in determining whether formal consultation is ... required.” 50 C.F.R. § 402.13(a). “If during informal consultation it is determined by the [action agency], with the written concurrence of *1008 the [consulting agency], that the action is not likely to adversely affect listed species or critical habitat, the consultation process is terminated and no further action is necessary.” Id.

However, if informal consultation fails to resolve the question of harm to a listed species, the action agency must engage in formal consultation. Formal consultation procedures require the consulting agency to evaluate the effects of the proposed action on the listed species, and issue a “biological opinion” (BO), which states whether the action is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the species (hereinafter, “jeopardy finding” or “no jeopardy finding”). 50 C.F.R. § 402.14(h)(3). The issuance of the biological opinion terminates the formal consultation process. 50 C.F.R. § 402.14(Z)(1).

C. Agency Consultation and Analysis

1. NEPA

a) Dredging Project

In February, 1998, the Corps, jointly with the Port, issued a Draft Environmental Impact Statemeni/Environmental Impact Report (Draft EIS) for the dredging project. Corps AR 2842-4779. In response to the Draft EIS, Plaintiffs submitted a series of comments asserting that the Corps had failed to evaluate the impact of non-native species entering the San Francisco Bay through ballast water discharges. Id. at 8106-24 (March 4, 1998); 8125-8332 (March 30, 1998); 8806-13 (April 23, 1998). The final EIS for the dredging project was published in May, 1998.

The May, 1998 Final EIS recognized that “discharge of ballast water is the primary mechanism by which exotic marine and freshwater organisms are spread around the world today” and that “the establishment of unwanted species ... can seriously upset the existing ecological balance at the discharge location.” Id. at 7511. The Final EIS listed several variables that could affect the likelihood that “any particular discharge of ballast water will lead to the introduction of an invasive species.” Id. at 7512. Although the Corps identified several relevant variables, it found that there were too many “uncertainties along the potential path of introduction” to quantify the risk of establishment of an invasive species through ballast water discharge. Id. at 7514.

Instead, the Corps focused on volume of ballast water discharged, on the theory that a reduction in quantity of ballast water would correlate to a reduced risk of invasive species transported in ballast water. Id. at 7513. The Corps concluded that, upon completion of the dredging project in 2010, total ballast water discharged would be less than if no project were undertaken. Id. The Corps based this conclusion on the projected increase in the number of post-Panamax vessels using the Port if the project were completed. Because these vessels are wider and more stable, they typically use less ballast water. Consequently, by accommodating these ships in the Port, ballast water discharges would decrease. Id.

Based on the reduction in total ballast water discharged, and the inability to quantify the other factors relevant to the invasive species problem, the Corps concluded that “no increased risk of invasive species introduction can be determined to qualify as a significant cumulative impact of the proposed project.” Id. at 7514. Although it had concluded that there would be no significant impact, the Corps nevertheless identified specific mitigation measures relevant to reducing the risk of invasive species. It recommended that the Port adopt certain of these mitigation measures.

The Corps supplemented the Final EIS with an “Information Report, Corrections, and Updates on the Final EIS/EIR” (In *1009 formation Report) in March, 1999, and the Port released “Revisions to the Final EIR” (EIR Revisions) in September, 1999. The Information Report and EIR Revisions contained changes in the analysis of the invasive species issue. Specifically, the Final EIS had assumed that the dredging project would result in increased vessel traffic to the Port. A subsequent analysis undertaken in conjunction with the berths project revealed that increased vessel calls were attributable only to the berths project. With only the dredging project, cargo throughput would remain virtually static while ship calls would decrease over time because of the increased use of post-Panamax ships. Consequently, the Corps concluded that the dredging project “would not cause a significant impact from ballast water discharges.” Corps AR 9667.

The Corps issued an agency Record of Decision on the dredging project on October 19,1999.

b) Berths Project

As lead agency under the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA), Cal. Pub. Res.Code. § 21000 et seq., the Port issued a detailed EIR for the berths project in April, 1999. This document concluded that the berths and dredging projects, in combination, would likely reduce the risk of introducing invasive species into the Bay.

In support of this conclusion, the EIR reasoned as follows. First, the EIR determined that the berths project alone would increase the volume of ballast water discharged by five percent and, therefore, would have a significant adverse impact on the environment. Corps AR 337a-339, 1323-24. However, the EIR also noted that the combination of all future Port projects would decrease ballast water discharge below the discharge levels if no future projects were implemented and below the levels likely to occur if only the berths project was implemented. Corps AR 477-78, 1326. Although the EIR presumed a cumulative reduction in ballast water discharge, in recognition of the project specific impact, it nevertheless imposed mitigation measures. Id. at 337-38a. In particular, the Port relied on Port Ordinance 3516, which required ships visiting the Port to release ballast water in the ocean, thereby reducing the risk that any invasive species may be introduced into the Bay. 3 The combination of the cumulative reduction in ballast water and the likely consequence of Port Ordinance 3516 led the Port to conclude that “the risk of invasive species introduction via ballast water discharges at the Port [will be reduced] to a level far lower than under either existing conditions or the no-project alternative.” Id. at 1325.

In May, 1999, the Corps completed an Environmental Assessment (EA), rather than a full EIS for the berths project. The Corps incorporated the Port’s EIR analysis into its final EA. Id. at 1726,1757. The Corps issued a Permit Evaluation and Decision Document on December 3, 1999, determining that issuance of the requested permit would result in no significant impact. Id. at 2237.

2. ESA Consultation

a) FWS Consultation

On January 26, 1998, the Corps initiated formal consultation with FWS pursuant to section 7(a)(2) of the ESA. On June 23, 1998, FWS submitted a draft BO on the effects of the proposed projects on the *1010 endangered California least tern and the endangered California brown pelican. FWS AR 2383-2403. After receiving comments on the draft BO, and providing responses, FWS issued a final BO covering both the berths and dredging projects.

The FWS BO noted that ballast water discharges are a major vector for introducing non-native species into the Bay-Delta ecosystem. Id. at 3031. The biological opinion acknowledged that there “is a probability but not a certainty” that the future introduction of invasive species could affect listed species. Id. However, the BO concluded that because ballast water discharges to the San Francisco Bay would decrease as a consequence of anticipated changes in shipping practices and the Port’s open-ocean exchange ordinance, the projects were not likely to jeopardize listed species or their habitat. Id. at 3031-33.

b) NMFS Consultation

In March, 1999, the Corps initiated consultation with NMFS to determine the impact of the dredging project on steelhead and winter-run Chinook salmon. On August 9, 1999, after reviewing the Corps’ Final EIS, NMFS issued a letter of concurrence concluding that the dredging project would not adversely effect listed species or critical habitat. 4 NMFS AR 74-75.

On September 27, 1999, the Corps initiated formal consultation with NMFS for the berths project. Like FWS, NMFS described the adverse effects of exotic species on the Bay-Delta ecosystem, focusing on the impact to salmonid species. Id. at 220-21, 225-28. Relying on the anticipated reduction in ballast water discharge, NMFS concluded that the project was not likely to jeopardize listed species or critical habitat. Id. at 229-230.

STANDARD OF REVIEW

A. Summary Judgment

Summary judgment is properly granted when no genuine and disputed issues of material fact remain, and when, viewing the evidence most favorably to the non-moving party, the movant is clearly entitled to prevail as a matter of law. Fed. R.Civ.P. 56; Celotex Corp. v. Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 322-23, 106 S.Ct. 2548, 91 L.Ed.2d 265 (1986); Eisenberg v. Ins. Co. of N. Am., 815 F.2d 1285, 1288-89 (9th Cir.1987).

The moving party bears the burden of showing that there is no material factual dispute. Therefore, the Court must regard as true the opposing party’s evidence, if supported by affidavits or other eviden-tiary material. Celotex, 477 U.S. at 324, 106 S.Ct. 2548; Eisenberg, 815 F.2d at 1289. The Court must draw all reasonable inferences in favor of the party against whom summary judgment is sought. Matsushita Elec. Indus. Co. v. Zenith Radio Corp., 475 U.S. 574, 587, 106 S.Ct. 1348, 89 L.Ed.2d 538 (1986); Intel Corp. v. Hartford Accident & Indem. Co., 952 F.2d 1551, 1558 (9th Cir.1991).

Material facts which would preclude entry of summary judgment are those which, under applicable substantive law, may affect the outcome of the case. The substantive law will identify which facts are material. Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 248, 106 S.Ct. 2505, 91 L.Ed.2d 202 (1986).

Where the moving party does not bear the burden of proof on an issue at trial, the *1011 moving party may discharge its burden of showing that no genuine issue of material fact remains by demonstrating that “there is an absence of evidence to support the nonmoving party’s case.” Celotex, 477 U.S. at 325, 106 S.Ct. 2548. The moving party is not required to produce evidence showing the absence of a material fact on such issues, nor must the moving party support its motion with evidence negating the non-moving party’s claim. Id.; see also Lujan v. Nat’l Wildlife Fed’n, 497 U.S. 871, 885, 110 S.Ct. 3177, 111 L.Ed.2d 695 (1990); Bhan v. NME Hosps., Inc., 929 F.2d 1404, 1409 (9th Cir.1991), cert. denied, 502 U.S. 994, 112 S.Ct. 617, 116 L.Ed.2d 639 (1991). If the moving party shows an absence of evidence to support the non-moving party’s case, the burden then shifts to the opposing party to produce “specific evidence, through affidavits or admissible discovery material, to show that the dispute exists.” Bhan, 929 F.2d at 1409. A complete failure of proof concerning an essential element of the non-moving party’s ease necessarily renders all other facts immaterial. Celotex, 477 U.S. at 323, 106 S.Ct. 2548.

Where the moving party bears the burden of proof on an issue at trial, it must, in order to discharge its burden of showing that no genuine issue of material fact remains, make a prima facie showing in support of its position on that issue. See UA Local 343 v. Nor-Cal Plumbing, Inc., 48 F.3d 1465, 1471 (9th Cir.1994). That is, the moving party must present evidence that, if uncontroverted at trial, would entitle it to prevail on that issue. See id.; see also Int’l Shortstop, Inc. v. Rally’s, Inc., 939 F.2d 1257, 1264-65 (5th Cir.1991). Once it has done so, the non-moving party must set forth specific facts controverting the moving party’s prima facie case. See UA Local 343, 48 F.3d at 1471. The non-moving party’s “burden of contradicting [the moving party’s] evidence is not negligible.” Id. This standard does not change merely because resolution of the relevant issue is “highly fact specific.” See id.

B. Administrative Procedure Act

Challenges to final agency actions taken pursuant to NEPA and the ESA are subject to the review provisions of the Administrative Procedure Act (APA). Southwest Center for Biological Diversity v. Bureau of Reclamation, 143 F.3d 515, 522 (9th Cir.1998). The Corps’ Final EIS with respect to the dredging project, the Corps’ EA with respect to the berths project, the biological opinions issued by FWS and NMFS, and NMFS’s letter of concurrence addressing the impact of the dredging project under the ESA are all final agency actions subject to review pursuant to the APA. Under the APA, agency decisions may be set aside only if “arbitrary, capricious, an abuse of discretion, or otherwise not in accordance with law.” 5 U.S.C. § 706(2)(A); Ariz. Cattle Growers’ Ass’n v. United States Fish & Wildlife, 273 F.3d 1229, 1236 (9th Cir.2001).

To determine whether an agency action was arbitrary and capricious, the court must “determine whether the agency articulated a rational connection between the facts found and the choice made.” Ariz. Cattle Growers’ Ass’n, 273 F.3d at 1236. As long as the agency decision was based on a consideration of relevant factors and there is no clear error of judgment, the reviewing court may not overturn the agency’s action. Id. (citing Am. Hosp. Ass’n v. NLRB, 499 U.S. 606, 111 S.Ct. 1539, 113 L.Ed.2d 675 (1991)). In particular, the reviewing court must defer to the agency’s decision when the resolution of the dispute involves issues of fact or requires a high level of technical expertise. Marsh v. Or. Natural Res. Council, 490 U.S. 360, 377, 109 S.Ct. 1851, 104 L.Ed.2d 377 (1989); Cen. Ariz. Water Conservation Dist. v. EPA, 990 F.2d 1531, 1539-40 (9th *1012 Cir.1993). Accordingly, the court may set aside only those conclusions that do not have a basis in fact, not those with which it disagrees. Ariz. Cattle Growers’ Ass’n, 273 F.3d at 1236.

DISCUSSION

Plaintiffs’ first and second claims for relief relate to the Corps’ alleged failure to comply with the analysis and public disclosure requirements of NEPA. The third claim for relief alleges that the Corps failed to comply with section 7(a)(1) of the ESA requiring federal agencies to “earry[ ] out programs for the conservation of endangered species and threatened species.” The fourth, fifth and sixth claims for relief address the adequacy of the biological opinions and the letter of concurrence issued by FWS and NMFS.

A. NEPA (First and Second Claims for Relief)

1. Failure to Prepare an EIS for the Berths Project

Plaintiffs argue that the Corps violated NEPA by producing an EA for the berths project rather than a more comprehensive EIS. When a federal agency action is limited to the grant of a permit, as is the case with the berths project, a decision to grant the permit “will normally require only an EA.” 33 C.F.R. § 230.7(a). But NEPA does requires that an EIS be prepared if the subject action “significantly affects the quality of the human environment.” 42 U.S.C. § 4332(2)(C). Whether the proposed action requires an EIS is determined by the context and intensity of the impacts of the project. 40 C.F.R. § 1508.27. “Context simply delimits the scope of the agency’s action, including the interests affected. Intensity relates to the degree to which the agency action affects the ... interests identified.” Nat’l Parks and Conservation Ass’n v. Babbitt, 241 F.3d 722, 731 (9th Cir.2001). The EA ultimately concluded that the project was likely to have no adverse impact from invasive species and, therefore, the context and intensity of the project did not require an EIS. Corps AR 2235-36. Plaintiffs contend that this determination was improper because the Corps failed independently to determine the environmental consequences of the berths project. Plaintiffs contend that the Corps’ reliance on the Port’s EIR was impermissible under NEPA. 5

An agency is entitled to utilize environmental information submitted by a permit applicant, and may even allow that applicant to prepare an EA. 40 C.F.R. § 1506.5(a)-(b). 6 However, an agency is also required to “independently evaluate the information submitted and ... be responsible for its accuracy.” 40 C.F.R. § 1506.5(a). The intent of this regulation is that “acceptable work not be redone, but that it be verified by the agency.” Id. Plaintiffs argue that the Corps impermissi-bly adopted the data, analysis and conclusions in the Port’s EIR without any independent evaluation.

Plaintiffs rely on several cases in support of this contention. See Southern Or. Citizens Against Toxic Sprays, Inc. v. Clark, 720 F.2d 1475 (9th Cir.1983); Or. Envtl. Council v. Kunzman, 714 F.2d 901, 904 (9th Cir.1983); The Steamboaters v. Fed. Energy Regulatory Comm’n, 759 F.2d 1382 (9th Cir.1985). These cases are inapposite. In Clark and Kunzman, the agencies relied on the fact that a specific *1013 chemical had been listed under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) to conclude that a site-specific use of that chemical would not have significant adverse effects under NEPA. 7 The court held that such reliance was improper because “[t]he licensing of pesticides containing carbaryl does not ‘reflect a conclusion that a pesticide is safe under any conditions ... ’ ” Kunzman, 714 F.2d at 905 (citing Calvert Cliffs’ Coordinating Comm. v. Atomic Energy Comm’n, 449 F.2d 1109, 1123 (D.C.Cir.1971)); see also Clark, 720 F.2d at 1480. The investigation required to determine that a chemical should be listed under FIFRA did not address the issues raised by the NEPA claim. Consequently, such reliance was misplaced. In this case, however, the Port’s EIR addressed the same issues that faced the Corps when producing its EA. The question raised here is to what extent the Corps was required to duplicate the work already done by the Port to assure that bias and mistake had not affected the Port’s conclusions.

Plaintiffs argue that there is no evidence in the record that the Corps satisfied its obligation of independent evaluation. However, the Corps concisely summarized the findings of the Port’s EIR with respect to invasive species, cited and attached the documents on which it relied, and issued a FONSI explicitly “based on a review of information incorporated in the” EA. Corps AR 1757, 2235-36. Absent some indication that the Corps acted improperly, the Court will presume that the Corps’ decision-making process was adequate and that it fulfilled its statutory and regulatory duty of independent evaluation. Akiak Native Cmty. v. United States Postal Serv., 213 F.3d 1140, 1146 (9th Cir.2000) (“agency’s decision-making process is accorded a presumption of regularity”). Therefore, the Corps’ reliance on the Port’s EIR did not violate NEPA.

2. Insufficient Discussion of Invasive Species Problem

Plaintiffs also contend that the dredging project EIS and the berths project EA produced by the Corps were inadequate under NEPA. As noted above, the fundamental purpose of NEPA is to provide disclosure of significant environmental risks before a project is undertaken. Consequently, “an EIS is in compliance with NEPA when its form, content and preparation substantially 1) provide decision-makers with an environmental disclosure sufficiently detailed to aid in the substantive decision whether to proceed with the project in light of its environmental consequences, and 2) make available to the public, information of the proposed project’s environmental impact and encourage public participation in the development of that information.”' Trout Unlimited v. Morton, 509 F.2d 1276, 1283 (9th Cir.1974).

Plaintiffs contend that both the dredging project EIS and the berths project EA failed to satisfy this notice function because these documents do not contain sufficient discussions of potential invasive species impacts and causes. Plaintiffs raise three specific areas where they allege that the EIS and EA skirted the vital environmental issues raised by the projects.

First, Plaintiffs contend that the documents contain an insufficient discussion of the potential impacts of invasive species on the San Francisco Bay. Plaintiffs point out that invasive species can lead to multiple, diverse ecological and economic problems. In particular, the transplanting of non *1014 native species creates a significant danger to native species by disrupting the local food chain and altering the physical environment in which local species thrive. Invasive species, therefore, may lead to endangerment or extinction of indigenous species. See Plaintiffs’ Motion for Summary Judgment at 3-8. Plaintiffs argue that the Corps failed to discuss these potential impacts in its EIS or EA and, therefore, failed to satisfy its obligation to provide adequate information on which to base policy.

Defendants contend that the discussion of potential invasive species impacts was reasonable and sufficient under the circumstances. This is so because the Corps was only required to provide a “full and fair discussion of the significant environmental impacts” of the action. 40 C.F.R. § 1502.1; California v. Block, 690 F.2d 753, 761 (9th Cir.1982) (EIS must contain “a reasonably thorough discussion of the significant aspects of the probable environmental consequences”). Both the EIS and the EA concluded that the projects in question would have no significant adverse environmental impact with respect to invasive species. The Corps, therefore, had no obligation to discuss the potential consequences of the introduction of invasive species into the Bay. In other words, Defendants argue that they had no legal obligation to provide a detailed description of impacts that the projects will not have.

If the Corps’ determination that the projects are more likely to have a mitigating effect on the risk of introduction of invasive species was correct, it was not obliged to provide a detailed discussion of the environmental consequences of potential invasive species introduction. Consequently, whether the discussion of invasive species impacts was sufficient is dependent on whether the Corps’ determination of risk was adequate. Plaintiffs raise two challenges to the Corps’ assessment of the invasive species risk. First, Plaintiffs argue that the Corps failed to consider all of the relevant factors that contribute to the introduction of invasive species. Second, Plaintiffs contend that the Corps’ analysis of the one risk factor it did consider— ballast water discharge volume — -was flawed.

Plaintiffs argue that in order properly to assess the invasive species risk, the Corps was required to consider the numerous factors that contribute to that risk, including the source of the ballast water, the time in transit, and the location of the discharge of ballast water. In fact, in both the EIS and the EA, the Corps considered all of the risk factors identified by Plaintiffs. Corps AR 1325, 7512-14. However, the Corps concluded that it was unable to base its determination on these factors because no methodology existed to quantify these various risks.

No established methodology has been developed to quantify the risk that ballast water discharges will result in introduction of invasive species. Nor is there a generally accepted methodology to predict the potential environmental impact of the introduction of invasive species.

The likelihood that any particular discharge or volume of discharge of ballast water will lead to the introduction of an invasive species and result in environmental impact depends upon a large number of uncertainties along the path of introduction. Information to satisfy these variables as they relate to the myriad of potential invasive species is either unavailable or incomplete, and the cost and complexity of collecting and analyzing such information would be prohibitive.

Id. at 7514.

Because of the complexity of the issue, there are currently no models in use to *1015 predict which exotic species will become established in a new location.

Id. at 1325.

The Corps reasonably concluded that it was unable accurately to quantify the myriad variables that Plaintiffs have identified. Moreover, even assuming that the Corps could accurately quantify these variables, Plaintiffs do not explain how the Corps could translate these variables to meaningful predictions of the projects’ environmental impact. Instead of speculating as to what these uncertain impacts might be, the Corps chose a relatively simple model: if the volume of ballast water decreases, the number of invasive species living in that ballast water is likely to decrease, thereby decreasing the possible environmental impact of invasive species. Plaintiffs’ suggestions would add complexity to this model without increasing its predictive accuracy. Accordingly, the Corps did not act arbitrarily by relying on the volume of ballast water discharged as the determinative variable in its invasive species analysis.

In order to survive review, however, the ballast water discharge calculations must be founded “in reasoned evaluation of the relevant factors.” Marsh, 490 U.S. at 378, 109 S.Ct. 1851. In its EA for the berths project, the Corps concluded that the combination of the dredging and berths project would both expand capacity at the Port of Oakland and decrease the total ballast water into the Bay. Corps AR 478. Because the dredging project would increase the percentage of cargo transported by larger, more efficient post-“Panamax” vessels, the number of vessel calls per existing berth is expected to decrease substantially. Id. at 9667, 9679. In addition, the newer vessels are wider and more stable and therefore typically carry only one-fourth of the ballast water required by the older Panamax vessels. Id. at 478, 9667. 8 On the balance, the total ballast water discharged by vessels calling on the Port of Oakland is expected to drop from 6.0 million metric tons in 1996 to 3.5 million metric tons in 2010. Id. at 478.

Plaintiffs take issue with several assumptions underlying this analysis. Plaintiffs contend that the Corps improperly relied on “personal communications” to estimate the ballast water discharge of post-Panamax vessels. Id. at 7513. Plaintiffs cite no authority that only written information may be relied on in an EIS and the Court declines to impose such a requirement. The individuals who provided the oral information, and their respective capacities, were disclosed in the EIS, thereby enabling verification by interested parties. Id. at 7516.

In addition, Plaintiffs contend that the Corps used uncertain ballast water volume estimates and arbitrarily based its no significant impact finding on discharge estimates from 2010. Plaintiffs note that, based on the estimates provided by the Port, the