United States v. Andrew Duggan, Eamon Meehan, Gabriel Megahey, and Colm Meehan, Defendants

The principal issues raised in this appeal by alleged agents of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (“PIRA”) concern the constitutionality and proper application of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (“FISA” or the “Act”), 50 U.S.C. §§ 1801-1811 (Supp. V 1981). Defendants Andrew Duggan, Eamon Meehan, Gabriel Megahey, and Colm Meehan appeal from judgments of conviction entered in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York, after a jury trial before Charles P. Sifton, Judge. Duggan, Megahey, and Eamon Meehan were convicted of (a) unlicensed exportation of items on the United States Munitions List, in violation of 22 U.S.C. § 2778(b)(2) (1982) 1 (count 2); (b) transportation of explosives in interstate commerce without a license, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 842(a)(3)(A) (1982) (count 3); (c) transportation of explosives in interstate commerce knowing that the explosives would be used to kill, injure, or intimidate individuals, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 844(d) (1982) (count 4); (d) transportation in interstate commerce of firearms with their serial numbers removed, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 922(k) (1982) (count 5); (e) delivery to a common carrier of a shipment containing firearms without giving notice to the carrier of the contents of the shipment, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 922(e) (1982) (count 6); (f) conspiracy to violate both 26 U.S.C. § 5861(d) (1982), which proscribes possession of unregistered destructive devices, and the statutes listed in counts 3 through 6, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 371 (1982) (count 1). Colm Meehan was acquitted on the two counts involving interstate transportation of explosives (counts 3 and 4) and was convicted on all other counts. The Meehans were also convicted of possessing guns while illegal aliens, in violation of 18 U.S.C. app. § 1202(a)(5) (1982) (count 7). 2

On appeal, all of the defendants contend principally (1) that the district court erred in refusing to suppress evidence obtained through a wiretap pursuant to FISA on the grounds that (a) FISA is unconstitutionally *65 broad and violates the probable cause requirement of the Fourth Amendment, and (b) the government failed to comply with FISA’s prerequisites for wire surveillance; (2) that the district court erred in excluding their defense that their actions were taken in reasonable good faith reliance on the apparent authority of one Michael Hanratty, a government informant, to act as an agent of the Central Intelligence Agency (“CIA”); and (3) that the conduct of government agents was so outrageous as to deprive them of due process of law. In addition, Eamon and Colm Meehan contend that the district court erred in rejecting their proffered defense of insanity. We reject the defendants’ contentions and affirm the convictions.

I. BACKGROUND

Although none of the defendants challenges the sufficiency of the proof to convict him, we summarize here so much of the trial evidence, taken in the light most favorable to the government, as is necessary to place defendants’ major contentions in context. In general the evidence, presented largely through the testimony of Hanratty, videotapes of meetings between PIRA members and undercover law enforcement agents, and tape recordings of telephone conversations involving Mega-hey, showed defendants as part of a network of men working clandestinely on behalf of PIRA to acquire explosives, weapons, ammunition, and remote-controlled detonation devices in the United States to be exported to Northern Ireland for use in terrorist activities. Megahey, an Irish national who sought political asylum in the United States, was the leader and financier of PIRA operations in the United States. Duggan, an American citizen, was Mega-hey’s assistant in contacting sellers of electronic equipment to be used in remote-controlled bombs and other sophisticated weaponry. Eamon Meehan, under the direction of Megahey, gathered and stored firearms and explosives; Eamon and his brother Colm — both aliens living illegally in the United States — secreted these materials in a shipment of goods bound for Northern Ireland.

A. The Events

1. PIRA Meets Hanratty

The events that culminated in the June 1982 arrests of the defendants began a year earlier, when Duggan, on the recommendation of an acquaintance, sought out Michael Hanratty, a seller of surveillance and countersurveillance equipment and other electronic items. At this first meeting, Duggan and an associate, Brendon Docherty, a/k/a Brendon Sloan (“Sloan”), identified themselves to Hanratty as members of PIRA, and explained that they sought to purchase equipment for use against the British in Northern Ireland. At a meeting that evening, Duggan, Sloan, and a third companion explained to Hanratty their political views and PIRA’s equipment needs. Although Duggan and his associates inquired about the availability of a variety of equipment — including bullet proof vests, electronic tracking systems, and devices to detect the presence of electronic surveillance — their principal interest was in acquiring sophisticated remote-controlled explosive detonators, items that Hanratty could not supply.

Hanratty promptly informed the Federal Bureau of Investigation (“FBI”) of these conversations and agreed to provide FBI agents with information gained from any future meetings, in particular the types of electronic equipment Duggan and his associates desired to purchase. Although the agents did not instruct Hanratty to initiate any further contact with Duggan’s group, they requested that he attempt to introduce an undercover FBI agent into future dealings if the opportunity arose.

Over the next six months, Hanratty was contacted by Duggan and Sloan several times for the purchase of a variety of equipment that could be used as fusing mechanisms for bombs. In addition, Sloan asked Hanratty if he could supply surface-to-air missiles (“SAMs”), with which PIRA could shoot down British helicopters.

*66 During these meetings Duggan and his associates frequently spoke of consulting their “money man” for the PIRA purchases. In January 1982, Hanratty was summoned by Duggan for his first meeting with the “money man” and was presented to Megahey. Megahey introduced himself as the leader of PIRA operations in the United States, and stated that all PIRA activities in the United States were conducted with his knowledge. Megahey said he had chosen to reveal himself to Hanratty because Hanratty had become a valuable asset to their organization, and he, inter alia, reminded Hanratty of the importance of acquiring certain previously ordered devices that were needed as safety mechanisms in the construction of remote-controlled bombs.

2. PIRA Meets the FBI

After Hanratty was introduced to Mega-hey, the government obtained from a judge of the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (“FISA Court” and, generally, “FISA Judge”) an order authorizing the FBI to conduct electronic surveillance of Megahey’s home telephone. The surveillance was initiated on February 10, 1982, continued pursuant to a renewal order obtained on May 6, 1982, and terminated on June 21, 1982, the date of Megahey’s arrest by the FBI. The wiretap intercepted several conversations between Megahey and Duggan concerning PIRA activities, and information from the wiretap led the FBI to conduct surveillance of the home of Eamon Meehan.

In March 1982, Hanratty obtained the bomb safety devices requested by Megahey and his associates and delivered them to Duggan under surveillance by the FBI. The switches had been microscopically marked by FBI laboratory personnel for future identification. Two months later these switches, along with weapons and explosive devices, were found hidden in a shipment of goods loaded by Eamon and Colm Meehan into a shipping container bound for Northern Ireland. Agents who had observed the Meehans’ activities secured the container, and caused it to be searched by United States Customs Service officials just before it was to be shipped to Northern Ireland.

In the meantime, two of Duggan’s associates had reopened with Hanratty the question of obtaining SAMs. Hanratty told them he could not personally supply the missiles but said he knew of a possible source, a man he identified as “Luis.” Hanratty described Luis as a Miami-based wheeler-dealer who supplied arms to Central American and other countries. Han-ratty later gave the same story to Duggan in response to a question that Hanratty thought referred to Duggan’s associates’ inquiries about obtaining SAMs. Thereafter, Duggan and Megahey repeatedly asked Hanratty if he had been contacted by Luis.

On May 2, 1982, at the direction of the FBI, Hanratty introduced Duggan to “Enrique,” supposedly one of Luis’s lieutenants, played by FBI Special Agent Enrique Ghimenti. The FBI videotaped Duggan’s discussion with Ghimenti, in which Duggan described himself as a “buffer” who located available weapons for others to purchase. Duggan told Ghimenti that although he was interested in purchasing hand grenades and automatic weapons, his top-priority was the purchase of SAMs. The session concluded with an agreement to arrange another meeting, to be attended by PIRA representatives more experienced in weapons and prices. Duggan later reported to Hanratty that the meeting had gone well, that he believed Enrique and Luis had access to the missiles PIRA sought, and that although Hanratty was not to be involved in the upcoming transactions, he would remain the contact for both sides.

The meeting with PIRA’s technical specialists took place in New Orleans and was also videotaped. Duggan introduced his associates and then absented himself from the discussions. Duggan’s associates told Enrique and two undercover FBI agents, playing the roles of Luis and his technical advisor, that they were the “provisionals ... the Irish Republican Army,” and stated *67 that “[w]hat we want is a weapon which will take down ... [British] helicopters, ... [w]arships of the sky.” Ultimately, an agreement was reached for PIRA to buy five “Redeye” missiles for $50,000.

The transaction was never consummated, however, as Megahey repeatedly sought to assure himself that PIRA was not dealing with law enforcement agents. (Megahey commented to Enrique that “the only thing we can lose in this is if you’re a policeman.”) Megahey proposed to have the buyers and sellers exchange hostages until the deal was done and the weapons were in place, reasoning that law enforcement agents would not risk either the loss of their hostage’s life or the loss of the missiles. The FBI rejected the hostage proposal, and the proposed purchase of the SAMs was cancelled.

Shortly after these negotiations fell through, the four defendants herein were arrested. They and several of their associates were indicted in a seven-count indictment charging the firearms, explosives, munitions, and conspiracy offenses described at the outset of this opinion.

B. The Proceedings Below

The defendants raised several defenses below at various stages of the proceedings, which the court rejected either for lack of merit or for untimeliness.

1. The Pretrial Motion to Suppress the FISA Materials

On July 27, 1982, pursuant to the provisions of FISA, 50 U.S.C. § 1806(b), the Acting Attorney General of the United States, Edward C. Schmults, authorized the use at trial of tape recordings and information obtained pursuant to the FISA surveillance of the activities of the defendants. Shortly thereafter, pursuant to 50 U.S.C. § 1806(c), the government notified the court and the defendants of its intention to introduce evidence from the FISA surveillance at trial. In the following months, the government provided the defendants with copies of all tape recordings, transcripts, surveillance logs, and pen register tapes of all telephone conversations resulting from the surveillance.

Defendants moved to suppress the fruits of the FISA surveillance on a variety of grounds. They contended that FISA surveillance violates a target’s First, Fourth, and Fifth Amendment rights because it is too broad; violates the doctrine of separation of powers because it requires the courts to decide political questions; and denies due process and equal protection to aliens. In addition, defendants contended that the requirements set forth in FISA had not been met because an insufficient basis had been provided for the issuance of the surveillance order and because the government had failed to comply with FISA’s “minimization” requirements. They also contended that FISA had been improperly used simply to obtain evidence of criminal activity rather than to protect the national security. Defendants asked the court to hold an evidentiary hearing to determine these issues.

The government in turn moved to have the trial court determine the propriety of the electronic surveillance on an ex parte, in camera basis pursuant to 50 U.S.C. § 1806(f). In support of this application, the government filed an Affidavit and Claim of Privilege of Acting Attorney General Schmults. The affidavit stated that the FISA applications contained sensitive information concerning United States intelligence sources and methods and other information relating to the efforts of the United States to combat international terrorism. It certified that public disclosure or an adversary hearing with respect to this information would harm the national security of the United States. An additional affidavit of the Acting Attorney General, submitted to the district court in camera, set forth in greater detail the facts upon which the claim of privilege was based.

After reviewing all of these materials, Judge Sifton rejected all of defendants’ FISA arguments on their merits in a thorough opinion sub nom United States v. Megahey, 553 F.Supp. 1180 (E.D.N.Y.1982) *68 (“Megahey ”), familiarity with which is assumed.

2. The Posttrial FISA Motion

Following their convictions, defendants asserted new challenges to FISA, to wit, (1) that the surveillance was unlawful because Duggan had not been named as a target, and (2) that the trial evidence revealed that the court had been misled as to the basis for the issuance of the FISA order. The court rejected the first contention on the grounds that it was untimely raised and that there was no requirement that the government name more than one target of the surveillance. The court rejected defendants’ second contention after reviewing the public and in camera documents and determining that it had not in fact been misled.

3. The Meehans’ Proposed Defense of Insanity

Prior to trial the Meehans sought several times to interpose a defense of insanity, in the nature of “Post-traumatic Stress Disorder” (“PTSD”), as a result of their internment and mistreatment in a Northern Ireland prison in the early 1970’s. The first of these motions was made on December 30, 1982, three months after pretrial motions were due and two months after the date the parties were first prepared to go to trial. The details of the motions are set out in Part III below and are here summarized only briefly. The court ordered the attorneys to show cause, pursuant to Fed. R.Crim.P. 12.2(a), why late filing of the defense should be permitted. Because the Meehans’ attorneys responded only with conclusory affidavits that did not explain why the defense was not developed earlier, did not give a firm diagnosis, and did not explain how PTSD might legally exculpate the Meehans, the court found that cause had not been shown for the untimely interposition of the defense. Although later applications by the Meehans included affidavits with a definite diagnosis, the court viewed these applications as designed primarily to obtain an adjournment of the trial date, which the court felt was unjustified. 3 Judge Sifton also denied a posttrial motion by the Meehans, based on their pretrial supporting papers and their trial testimony describing their prison experiences, for a new trial at which they would be permitted to present the insanity defense.

4. The Proposed Defense of Apparent Authority

At trial, Duggan and Megahey testified that they had been the unwilling victims of machinations by Hanratty who had convinced them that he was an agent of the CIA and had the authority to send munitions to Northern Ireland. Although Dug-gan admitted that it was he who initially sought out Hanratty and not vice versa, he claimed that he had merely asked Hanratty to “debug” the offices of the Irish People Paper and that Hanratty had conditioned his assistance on the agreement of Duggan and Sloan to find a contact in Northern Ireland to whom Hanratty could sell his equipment. While Duggan expressed disinterest, Sloan purportedly was persuaded by Hanratty’s assurances that he was with the CIA and that the CIA was interested in getting such equipment to Northern Ireland. Sloan persuaded Duggan, despite his initial reluctance, to act as a middleman between Hanratty and Megahey (who was allegedly acting as Sloan’s representative), after being assured that Sloan had seen Hanratty’s CIA identification and had “checked Hanratty out.” Duggan also testified that Hanratty later showed him a white laminated card, without a picture, that bore the words “Central Intelligence Agency,” and that, as his relationship with Hanratty grew, Hanratty played on Dug-gan’s sympathies for the IRA effort in Northern Ireland, convincing him that his *69 theretofore peaceful protests were ineffective.

Megahey gave a similar account of his introduction to Hanratty and claimed to have been convinced upon first meeting Hanratty of both Hanratty’s CIA connections and his assurance of government approval. He also testified that he had been influenced by the CIA pass, by Sloan’s assurances, and by statements of Hanratty that he worked with such persons as George Korkala, Edwin Wilson, and Frank Terpil. Megahey admitted that he was aware that the three named men were the subject of criminal charges in the United States for the illegal exportation of arms to other countries.

Duggan and Megahey sought to explain their videotaped statements describing their prior experience in weapons transactions and expressing their fears of being apprehended by law enforcement authorities by testifying that these words had been placed in their mouths by Hanratty. Both testified that they were told by Han-ratty that, while other federal agencies might not be aware of the CIA involvement in PIRA activities, and therefore Duggan and Megahey risked the possibility of arrest, any such arrests would be “taken care-of” by the CIA.

Eamon Meehan testified that when Me-gahey asked him to help ship guns to Northern Ireland, Megahey told him that they were dealing with a CIA agent. Colm Meehan testified that he had agreed to help Eemon only after Eamon told him of this conversation with Megahey.

Defendants requested that the trial court instruct the jury that if the defendants had acted in reliance upon the apparent authority of Hanratty as a CIA agent, they should be acquitted. The court declined to give this instruction.

C. Issues on Appeal

On appeal, the defendants principally (1) renew most of their challenges to the constitutionality and application of FISA, (2) contend that the trial court erred by, inter alia, refusing to give the requested instruction on apparent authority, and (3) contend that the government’s conduct was outrageous and denied them due process of law. The Meehans contend also that the district court erred in refusing to allow them to present their insanity defense. We are unpersuaded.

II. FISA

Enacted in 1978, FISA generally allows a federal officer, if authorized by the President of the United States acting through the Attorney General (or the Acting Attorney General or the Deputy Attorney General) of the United States, to obtain from a judge of the specially created FISA Court, see 50 U.S.C. § 1803, an order “approving electronic surveillance of a foreign power or an agent of a foreign power for the purpose of obtaining foreign intelligence information.” Id. § 1802(b).

FISA contains several definitions of “foreign power” and “agent of a foreign power.” Most pertinently to this case, FISA defines “foreign power” to include “a group engaged in international terrorism or activities in preparation therefor.” Id. § 1801(a)(4). An “agent of a foreign power” is defined to include both “any person other than a United States person, who ... acts in the United States as ... a member of a foreign power as defined in [§ 1801(a)(4)],” id. § 1801(b)(1)(A), and “any person who ... knowingly engages in ... international terrorism, or activities that are in preparation therefor, for or on behalf of a foreign power,” id. § 1801(b)(2)(C). Section 1801(i) defines “United States person” to include

a citizen of the United States, an alien lawfully admitted for permanent residence (as defined in section 1101(a)(20) of title 8), [and] an unincorporated association a substantial number of members of which are citizens of the United States or aliens lawfully admitted for permanent residence.

The Act defines “foreign intelligence information,” in part, as

*70 (1) information that relates to, and if concerning a United States person is necessary to, the ability of the United States to protect against—

(B) sabotage or international terrorism by a foreign power or an agent of a foreign power; or

(2) information with respect to a foreign power or foreign territory that relates to, and if concerning a United States person is necessary to—

(A) the national defense or security of the United States; or

(B) the conduct of the foreign affairs of the United States.

Id. § 1801(e). “International terrorism” is defined to include activities that — (1) involve violent acts or acts dangerous to human life that ... would be a criminal violation if committed within the jurisdiction of the United States or any State;

(2) appear to be intended—

(A) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population;

(B) to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion; or

(C) to affect the conduct of a government by assassination or kidnapping; and

(3) occur totally outside the United States, or transcend national boundaries in terms of the means by which they are accomplished, the persons they appear intended to coerce or intimidate, or the locale in which their perpetrators operate or seek asylum.

Id. § 1801(c).

A federal officer making application for a FISA order approving electronic surveillance must include in his application, inter alia, “the identity, if known, or a description of the target of the electronic surveillance,” id. § 1804(a)(3); “a statement of the facts and circumstances relied upon by the applicant to justify his belief that ... the target of the electronic surveillance is a foreign power or an agent of a foreign power,” id. § 1804(a)(4); and a certification by the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, or an executive branch designee of the President that, inter alia, the certifying official deems the information sought to be foreign intelligence information and that the purpose of the surveillance is to obtain foreign intelligence information, together with a statement of the basis for the certification that the information sought is the type of foreign intelligence information designated, id. § 1804(a)(7). When the target is a United States person, the government is required to minimize the acquisition and retention of nonpublicly available information and to prohibit its dissemination, consistent with the need of the United States to obtain, produce, and disseminate foreign intelligence information, id. § 1801(h); and the application must set out what minimization procedures are proposed, id. § 1804(a)(5).

The FISA Judge is authorized to enter an order approving electronic surveillance if he finds, inter alia, that

on the basis of the facts submitted by the applicant there is probable cause to believe that—

(A) the target of the electronic surveillance is a foreign power or an agent of a foreign power: Provided, That no United States person may be considered a foreign power or an agent of a foreign power solely upon the basis of activities protected by the first amendment to the Constitution of the United States,

id. § 1805(a)(3), and finds that the applying official has obtained the requisite authorization and has submitted the required information, id. §§ 1805(a)(1), (2) and (5). If the target is a United States person, the FISA Judge is not to approve surveillance unless he finds that the certifications submitted pursuant to § 1804(a)(7)(E) are not clearly erroneous on the basis of the data before him. Id. § 1805(a)(5).

Defendants mount two types of challenge with regard to FISA. First, they *71 contend that the Act is unconstitutional on several grounds. In addition, they contend that even if FISA is not unconstitutional, its requirements were not met in this case.

A. The Constitutionality of FISA

Defendants contend that FISA is unconstitutional principally on the grounds that (1) it is so broad as to deprive certain persons of due process of law, (2) it violates the probable cause requirement of the Fourth Amendment, and (3) it deprives nonresident aliens of the equal protection of the law. We find no merit in these contentions. 4

1. The Scope of the Act

Defendants argue that FISA is impermis-sibly broad in several respects. They point out that foreign intelligence information includes “information with respect to a foreign power ... that relates to ... (A) the national defense or the security of the United States; or (B) the conduct of the foreign affairs of the United States.” 50 U.S.C. § 1801(e)(2). They also point to the definition of an agent of a foreign power as a person, other than a United States person, who

acts for or on behalf of a foreign power which engages in clandestine intelligence activities in the United States contrary to the interests of the United States, when the circumstances of such person’s presence in the United States indicate that such person may engage in such activities in the United States,

id. § 1801(b)(1)(B) (emphasis added), and to the definition of an agent of a foreign power as any person who

knowingly engages in clandestine intelligence gathering activities for or on behalf of a foreign power, which activities involve or may involve a violation of the criminal statutes of the United States,

id. § 1801(b)(2)(A) (emphasis added). Defendants argue that the breadth of the above definitions gives the Act unlimited scope and permits the electronic surveillance of persons who “may” be engaging in activities that “may” violate United States law.

Interesting though these arguments may be in the abstract, they have no application to the case at hand. The information relayed by Hanratty to the FBI clearly portrayed Megahey as a member of a “group engaged in international terrorism or activities in preparation therefor,” id. § 1801(a)(4); Megahey was therefore an agent of a foreign power under § 1801(b)(1)(A). There is no suggestion in the record that Megahey was targeted because he was or may have been gathering intelligence. The sections of the Act relied upon by the defendants to show that the Act is impermissibly broad are simply irrelevant to this case. The sections and definitions plainly applicable to Megahey are explicit, unequivocal, and clearly defined.

Nor are we impressed by defendants’ argument that insofar as § 1801(e)(2) defines foreign intelligence information as information that “relates to ... (A) the national defense or the security of the United States; or (B) the conduct of the foreign affairs of the United States” it is impermissibly vague. Section 1801(e)(1)(B) defines foreign intelligence information as “information that relates to ... the ability of the United States to protect against ... international terrorism by a foreign power or an agent of a foreign power.” Given the information provided by Hanratty, the government plainly had a basis under this section for describing the information sought by surveillance of Megahey, self-proclaimed leader of an international terrorist group, as foreign intelligence information. Thus, even if we thought § 1801(e)(2)’s concepts of national defense, national security, or conduct of foreign affairs to be vague, which we do not, we would find therein no basis for reversing the convictions of these defendants, whose *72 circumstances were governed by an entirely different definition.

2. The Probable Cause Requirement of the Fourth Amendment

The Fourth Amendment provides that “no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause____” Defendants argue principally (1) that the Amendment applies to all proposed surveillances, including those in national security cases, and (2) that even if there were an exception for national security matters, it would not apply to terrorism cases where the objects of the terrorism are entirely outside of the United States. We reject these contentions.

Prior to the enactment of FISA, virtually every court that had addressed the issue had concluded that the President had the inherent power to conduct warrantless electronic surveillance to collect foreign intelligence information, and that such surveillances constituted an exception to the warrant requirement of the Fourth Amendment. See United States v. Truong Dinh Hung, 629 F.2d 908, 912-14 (4th Cir.1980), cert. denied, 454 U.S. 1144, 102 S.Ct. 1004, 71 L.Ed.2d 296 (1982); United States v. Buck, 548 F.2d 871, 875 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 434 U.S. 890, 98 S.Ct. 263, 54 L.Ed.2d 175 (1977); United States v. Butenko, 494 F.2d 593, 605 (3d Cir.) (en banc), cert. denied, 419 U.S. 881, 95 S.Ct. 147, 42 L.Ed.2d 121 (1974); United States v. Brown, 484 F.2d 418, 426 (5th Cir.1973), cert. denied, 415 U.S. 960, 94 S.Ct. 1490, 39 L.Ed.2d 575 (1974). But see Zweibon v. Mitchell, 516 F.2d 594, 633-51 (D.C.Cir.1975) (dictum), cert. denied, 425 U.S. 944, 96 S.Ct. 1685, 48 L.Ed.2d 187 (1976). The Supreme Court specifically declined to address this issue in United States v. United States District Court [Keith, J.], 407 U.S. 297, 308, 321-22, 92 S.Ct. 2125, 2132, 2138-39, 32 L.Ed.2d 752 (1972) (hereinafter referred to as “Keith”), but it had made clear that the requirements of the Fourth Amendment may change when differing governmental interests are at stake, see Camara v. Municipal Court, 387 U.S. 523, 87 S.Ct. 1727, 18 L.Ed.2d 930 (1967), and it observed in Keith that the governmental interests presented in national security investigations differ substantially from those presented in traditional criminal investigations. 407 U.S. at 321-24, 92 S.Ct. at 2138-40.

In Keith, the government argued that Title III of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act, 18 U.S.C. §§ 2510 et seq. (“Title III”), recognized the constitutional authority of the President to conduct domestic security surveillances without a warrant. The Court rejected this argument, noting that the legislative history made clear that Title III was not intended to legislate with respect to national security surveillances. The Court went on to hold that a warrant was required in Keith under the Fourth Amendment; but the implication of its discussion was that the warrant requirement is flexible and that different standards may be compatible with the Fourth Amendment in light of the different purposes and practical considerations of domestic national security surveillances. 407 U.S. at 321-24, 92 S.Ct. at 2138-40. Thus, the Court observed

that domestic security surveillance may involve different policy and practical considerations from the surveillance of “ordinary crime.” The gathering of security intelligence is often long range and involves the interrelation of various sources and types of information. The exact targets of such surveillance may be more difficult to identify than in surveillance operations against many types of crime specified in Title III. Often, too, the emphasis of domestic intelligence gathering is on the prevention of unlawful activity or the enhancement of the Government’s preparedness for some possible future crisis or emergency. Thus, the focus of domestic surveillance may be less precise than that directed against more conventional types of crime.

... Different standards [for surveillance involving domestic security] may be compatible with the Fourth Amendment if they are reasonable both in relation to the legitimate need of Govern *73 ment for intelligence information and the protected rights of our citizens. For the warrant application may vary according to the governmental interest to be enforced and the nature of citizen rights deserving protection.

Id. at 322-23, 92 S.Ct. at 2139-40.

Against this background, Congress passed FISA to settle what it believed to be the unresolved question of the applicability of the Fourth Amendment warrant requirement to electronic surveillance for foreign intelligence purposes, and to “remove any doubt as to the lawfulness of such surveillance.” H.R.Rep. 1283, pt. I, 95th Cong., 2d Sess. 25 (1978) (“House Report”). FISA reflects both Congress’s “legislative judgment” that the court orders and other procedural safeguards laid out in the Act “are necessary to insure that electronic surveillance by the U.S. Government within this country conforms to the fundamental principles of the fourth amendment,” S.Rep. No. 701, 95th Cong., 2d Sess. 13, reprinted in 1978 U.S.Code Cong. & Ad.News 3973, 3982 (“Senate Report 95-701”), and its attempt to fashion a “secure framework by which the Executive Branch may conduct legitimate electronic surveillance for foreign intelligence purposes within the context of this Nation’s commitment to privacy and individual rights.” S.Rep. No. 604, 95th Cong., 1st Sess. 15, reprinted in 1978 U.S.Code Cong. & Ad.News 3904, 3916 (“Senate Report 95-604”). In constructing this framework, Congress gave close scrutiny to departures from those Fourth Amendment doctrines applicable in the criminal-investigation context in order

to ensure that the procedures established in [FISA] are reasonable in relation to legitimate foreign counterintelligence requirements and the protected rights of individuals. Their reasonableness depends, in part, upon an assessment of the difficulties of investigating activities planned, directed, and supported from abroad by foreign intelligence services and foreign-based terrorist groups. The differences between ordinary criminal investigations to gather evidence of specific crimes and foreign counterintelligence investigations to uncover and monitor clandestine activities have been taken into account. Other factors include the international responsibilities of the United States, the duties of the Federal Government to the States in matters involving foreign terrorism, and the need to maintain the secrecy of lawful counterintelligence sources and methods.

Senate Report 95-701, at 14-15, reprinted in 1978 U.S.Code Cong. & Ad.News 3973, 3983.

We regard the procedures fashioned in FISA as a constitutionally adequate balancing of the individual’s Fourth Amendment rights against the nation’s need to obtain foreign intelligence information. The governmental concerns are detailed in the passages quoted above from Keith and the legislative history of FISA, and those concerns make reasonable the adoption of prerequisites to surveillance that are less stringent than those precedent to the issuance of a warrant for a criminal investigation. See generally United States v. Belfield, 692 F.2d 141, 148 (D.C.Cir.1982) (examining in camera review procedures of FISA (see Part II. B. 2., infra)). Against this background, the Act requires that the FISA Judge find probable cause to believe that the target is a foreign power or an agent of a foreign power, and that the place at which the electronic surveillance is to be directed is being used or is about to be used by a foreign power or an agent of a foreign power; and it requires him to find that the application meets the requirements of the Act. These requirements make it reasonable to dispense with a requirement that the FISA Judge find probable cause to believe that surveillance will in fact lead to the gathering of foreign intelligence information. 5 Further, if the target is a United States person, the Act *74 requires the FISA Judge to determine that the executive branch’s certifications pursuant to § 1804(a)(7) are not clearly erroneous in light of the application as a whole, and to find that the application properly proposes, as required by § 1801(h), to minimize the intrusion upon the target’s privacy.

We conclude that these requirements provide an appropriate balance between the individual’s interest in privacy and the government’s need to obtain foreign intelligence information, and that FISA does not violate the probable cause requirement of the Fourth Amendment.

Nor is there any merit to defendants’ contention that the national security interests of the United States are not implicated by acts of terrorism directed wholly outside the United States. The government points out that if other nations were to harbor terrorists and give them safe haven for staging terrorist activities against the United States, United States national security would be threatened. As a reciprocal matter, the United States cannot afford to give safe haven to terrorists who seek to carry out raids against other nations. Thus, international terrorism conducted from the United States, no matter where it is directed, may well have a substantial effect on United States national security and foreign policy. In recognition of these considerations, Senate Report 95-701 noted:

The committee intends that terrorists and saboteurs acting for foreign powers should be subject to surveillance under this bill when they are in the United States, even if the target of their violent acts is within a foreign country and therefore outside actual Federal or State jurisdiction. This departure from a strict criminal standard is justified by the international responsibility of government to prevent its territory from being used as a base for launching terrorist attacks against other countries. We demand that other countries live up to this responsibility and it is important that in our legislation we demonstrate a will to do so ourselves.

Senate Report 95-701, at 30, reprinted in 1978