Stanley C. Rybachek Rosalie A. Rybachek v. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Alaska Miners Association, Inc. v. United States Environmental Protection Agency

In a dubious reincarnation of the 1890's world of Yukon poet Robert Service, we deal here a century later with "strange things done in the midnight sun by the men who moil for gold."1 We are asked to determine the validity of Environmental Protection Agency regulations under the Clean Water Act which govern placer mining and have particular impact on the gold-rich streambeds of Alaska. Because the regulations are complex and the issues raised are multitudinous, our opinion (written, alas, in arid prose) is outlined in some detail:

* BACKGROUND

Placer mining is one of the four basic methods of mining metal ores; it involves the mining of alluvial or glacial deposits of loose gravel, sand, soil, clay, or mud called "placers." These placers often contain particles of gold and other heavy minerals. Placer miners excavate the gold-bearing material (paydirt) from the placer deposit after removing the surface vegetation and non-gold-bearing gravel (overburden). The gold is then separated from the other materials in the paydirt by a gravity-separation process known as "sluicing."

In the sluicing process, a miner places the ore in an on-site washing plant (usually a sluice box) which has small submerged dams (riffles) attached to its bottom. He causes water to be run over the paydirt in the sluice box; when the heavier materials (including gold) fall, they are caught by the riffles. The lighter sand, dirt, and clay particles are left suspended in the wastewater released from the sluice box.

Placer mining typically is conducted directly in streambeds or on adjacent property. The water usually enters the sluice box through gravity, but may sometimes also enter through the use of pumping equipment. At some point after the process described above, the water in the sluice box is discharged. The discharges from placer mining can have aesthetic and water-quality impacts on waters both in the immediate vicinity and downstream. Toxic metals, including arsenic, cadmium, lead, zinc, and copper, have been found at a higher concentration in streams where mining occurs than in non-mining streams.

It is the treatment of the sluice-box discharge water before it reenters a natural water course that is at the heart of this case.

Congress enacted the Clean Water Act to "restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters." 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1251(a) (Supp. V 1987).2 Under the Act, the EPA must impose and enforce technology-based effluent limitations and standards through individual National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System ("NPDES") permits. See 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1342 (1982 & Supp. V 1987). These permits contain specific terms and conditions, as well as numerical discharge limits, which govern the activities of pollutant dischargers. Through the Clean Water Act, Congress has directed the EPA to incorporate into the permits increasingly stringent technology-based effluent limitations.

Congress specified a number of means for the EPA to impose and to enforce these limitations in NPDES permits. For instance, it requires the Agency to establish effluent limitations requiring dischargers to use the "best practicable control technology currently available" ("BPT") within an industry. 33 U.S.C. Secs. 1311(b)(1)(A), 1314(b)(1)(A) (1982). These limits are to represent "the average of the best" treatment technology performance in an industrial category. See EPA v. National Crushed Stone Ass'n, 449 U.S. 64, 76 n. 15, 101 S.Ct. 295, 303 n. 15, 66 L.Ed.2d 268 (1980). The EPA is further required to promulgate limitations both for discharge of toxic pollutants by mandating that an industry use the "best available technology economically achievable" ("BAT") and for discharge of conventional pollutants by requiring the use of the "best conventional pollution control technology" ("BCT"); the congressionally imposed deadline for promulgation of these limitations was March 31, 1989. 33 U.S.C. Secs. 1311(b)(2)(A), (C), (D), and (E); 1314(a)(4), (b)(2), and (b)(4) (1982 & Supp. V 1987). Whether a pollutant should be considered toxic has been left to the discretion of the EPA. See 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1317(a)(1) (1982); see also 40 C.F.R. Sec. 401.15 (1989) (designating, pursuant to 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1317(a)(1), 65 toxic pollutants).

In addition, new pollution sources in an industry must meet a separate set of standards called new-source performance standards ("NSPS"). 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1316 (1982). These standards limit the discharge of pollutants by new sources based on the "best available demonstrated control technology" ("BDT"). Id. Finally, the EPA is authorized to establish best management practices ("BMPs") "to control plant site runoff, spillage or leaks, sludge or waste disposal, and drainage from raw material storage" in order to diminish the amount of toxic pollutants flowing into receiving waters. 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1314(e) (1982).

On November 20, 1985, proceeding under the Clean Water Act, the EPA proposed regulations for placer mining. See 50 Fed.Reg. 47,982 (1985). For most mines3 processing fewer than 500 cubic yards of ore per day ("yd³/day"), the EPA proposed BPT effluent limitations of 0.2 millilitres per litre ("ml/l") of discharge for settleable solids and 2,000 milligrams per litre ("mg/l") for total suspended solids. For mines processing more than 500 yd³/day of ore, the EPA proposed more-stringent BCT and BAT limitations, as well as new-source performance standards (NSPS) prohibiting the discharge of processed wastewater. Twice during the rulemaking process, the Agency published notices of new information and requested public comment on additional financial and technical data. See 51 Fed.Reg. 5,563 (1986); 52 Fed.Reg. 9,414 (1987).

As a result of its studies, the comments received during the review-and-comment periods, and new studies undertaken in response to the submitted comments, the EPA promulgated final effluent-limitation guidelines and standards on May 24, 1988. See 53 Fed.Reg. 18,764 (1988). The EPA established a BPT limitation, based upon simple-settling technology, for settleable solids of 0.2 ml/l for virtually all mines.4 The final rule also established BAT limitations and NSPS, based on recirculation technology, restricting the flow of processed wastewater that could be discharged.5 In addition, the EPA promulgated five BMPs to control discharges due to mine drainage and infiltration. These regulations were to become effective on July 7, 1988.

During the rulemaking process, commenters had expressed concerns about the impact that the proposed regulations might have on small placer mines. In promulgating the final rule, the EPA therefore solicited, for a sixty-day period, further public comment on the economic impact of the rule on small mines. See id. at 18,779. The EPA stated that it would modify the rule if "significant additional data [were] presented to [it] on small placer mines during this comment period demonstrating that different effluent guidelines limitations and standards are warranted on a national basis...." Id. Following the close of the special comment period, the EPA published a notice stating that it had determined not to modify the rule and making available the record construing the data and analyses that the Agency had generated in response to the comments. See 54 Fed.Reg. 25, 28 (1989).

The Alaska Miners Association ("AMA") and Stanley and Rosalie Rybachek timely petitioned this court for review of the EPA's regulations.6 We ordered the petitions consolidated.

Our review of the EPA's regulations is governed by the Administrative Procedure Act ("APA"), the Clean Water Act, and the Constitution. Under the APA, we may set aside the EPA's actions here if we find them to be "arbitrary, capricious, an abuse of discretion, or otherwise not in accordance with law"; or "in excess of statutory jurisdiction, authority, or limitations, or short of statutory right"; or "without observance of procedure required by law." 5 U.S.C. Sec. 706(2)(A), (C), (D) (1988). Our function is to determine whether the Agency "has considered the relevant factors and articulated a rational connection between the facts found and the choice made." Baltimore Gas & Elec. Co. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 462 U.S. 87, 105, 103 S.Ct. 2246, 2256, 76 L.Ed.2d 437 (1983). We must base this determination on a "review [of] the whole record or those parts of it cited by a party, and due account shall be taken of the rule of prejudicial error." 5 U.S.C. Sec. 706(2) (1988).

Because the EPA has been charged with administering the Clean Water Act, we must show great deference to the Agency's interpretation of the Act. See National Crushed Stone Ass'n, 449 U.S. at 83, 101 S.Ct. at 306 (court must show great deference to the interpretation given to a statute by the officers or agency charged with its administration). We especially defer where the Agency's decision on the meaning or reach of the Clean Water Act involves reconciling conflicting policies committed to the Agency's care and expertise under the Act. See Chevron U.S.A. Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837, 844, 104 S.Ct. 2778, 2782, 81 L.Ed.2d 694 (1984).7

B. The EPA's Authority Under the Clean Water Act

The parties dispute whether placer mining is even subject to regulation under the Clean Water Act.

The Act charges the EPA with developing comprehensive programs aimed at "preventing, reducing, or eliminating the pollution of the navigable waters and ground waters and improving the sanitary condition of surface and underground waters." 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1252(a) (1982); see also E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. v. Train, 430 U.S. 112, 116, 97 S.Ct. 965, 969, 51 L.Ed.2d 204 (1977) (noting that Congress's goal in enacting the Clean Water Act was to eliminate by 1985 all pollutant discharges into the nation's waters). To assist the EPA in this program development, Congress made unlawful "the discharge of any pollutant by any person" except as in compliance with the Clean Water Act. 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1311(a) (1982). It defined "discharge of a pollutant," in part, as "any addition of any pollutant to navigable waters from any point source...." 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1362(12) (1982).

The AMA seizes upon this statutory scheme to argue that placer mining is not subject to regulation under the Clean Water Act for at least two reasons: (1) placer mines do not discharge into "navigable waters"; and (2) placer mining does not "add" pollutants to water within the meaning of the Act.8 We reject both of these arguments and find that the EPA did not exceed the scope of its authority under the Clean Water Act in promulgating the challenged regulations.

First, the Clean Water Act covers the waters at issue here. Congress views broadly the words "navigable waters" in the Clean Water Act: it has defined them simply as "the waters of the United States, including the territorial seas." 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1362(7) (1982). Here, the parties agree that placer mines discharge into nearby streams and rivers. These are clearly among "the waters of the United States."

Second, we will not strike down the EPA's finding that placer mining discharges pollutants within the meaning of the Act. Placer miners excavate the dirt and gravel in and around waterways, extract any gold, and discharge the dirt and other non-gold material into the water.

On the one hand, if the material discharged is not from the streambed itself, but from the bank alongside, this is clearly the discharge into navigable waters of a pollutant under the Act. Congress defined "pollutant" as meaning, among other things, "dredged spoil ..., rock, sand, [and] cellar dirt...." 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1362(6) (1982). The term "pollutant" thus encompasses the materials segregated from gold in placer mining. Congress defined "discharge" as any "addition [ ] to navigable waters from any point source." 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1362(12) (1982). Because, under this scenario, the material discharged is coming not from the streambed itself, but from outside it, this clearly constitutes an "addition."

And on the other hand, even if the material discharged originally comes from the streambed itself, such resuspension may be interpreted to be an addition of a pollutant under the Act. See Avoyelles Sportsmen's League, Inc. v. Marsh, 715 F.2d 897, 923 (5th Cir.1983) (stating that "[t]he word 'addition,' as used in the definition of the term 'discharge,' may reasonably be understood to include 'redeposit' "), later proceeding, 786 F.2d 631 (5th Cir.1986) (concerning attorneys' fees); United States v. M.C.C. of Florida, Inc., 772 F.2d 1501, 1506 (11th Cir.1985) (action of digging up sediment and redepositing it on sea bottom by boat propellers constitutes an addition of pollutants), vacated and remanded on other grounds, 481 U.S. 1034, 107 S.Ct. 1968, 95 L.Ed.2d 809 (1987), readopted in part and remanded on other grounds, 848 F.2d 1133 (11th Cir.1988) (interpreting Supreme Court's action as affecting only a different part of the original opinion), reh'g granted in other part, 863 F.2d 802 (11th Cir.1989). We will follow the lead of the Fifth and Eleventh Circuits and defer to the EPA's interpretation of the word "addition" in the Clean Water Act. See Chevron U.S.A. Inc., 467 U.S. at 844, 104 S.Ct. at 2782; see also National Crushed Stone Ass'n, 449 U.S. at 83, 101 S.Ct. at 307 (stating that "this Court shows great deference to the interpretation given the statute by the officers or agency charged with its administration") (quotation omitted).

In short, the EPA's regulation of placer mining here was within its mandate from Congress and therefore not "in excess of statutory jurisdiction." 5 U.S.C. Sec. 706(2)(C) (1988).

Petitioners claim that the EPA's notice-and-comment procedures violated their due process rights. The violations, according to petitioners, arose in several different forms. We consider each in turn.

The Rybacheks allege that the EPA's addition of over 6,000 pages to the administrative record, after the public review-and-comment period had ended, violated their right to comment on the record.

We disagree. The EPA has not violated the Rybacheks' right to meaningful public participation. The additional material was the EPA's response to comments made during a public-comment period.9 Nothing prohibits the Agency from adding supporting documentation for a final rule in response to public comments. In fact, adherence to the Rybacheks' view might result in the EPA's never being able to issue a final rule capable of standing up to review: every time the Agency responded to public comments, such as those in this rulemaking, it would trigger a new comment period. Thus, either the comment period would continue in a never-ending circle, or, if the EPA chose not to respond to the last set of public comments, any final rule could be struck down for lack of support in the record. Cf. BASF Wyandotte Corp. v. Costle, 598 F.2d 637, 644-45 (1st Cir.1979) (noting that it is "perfectly predictable" that an administrative agency will collect new data during the comment period "in a continuing effort to give the regulations a more accurate foundation" and stating that "[t]he agency should be encouraged to use such information in its final calculations without thereby risking the requirement of a new comment period"), cert. denied, 444 U.S. 1096, 100 S.Ct. 1063, 62 L.Ed.2d 784 (1980), later proceeding, 614 F.2d 21 (1st Cir.1980) (dismissing petitions for review). The Rybacheks' unviolated right was to comment on the proposed regulations, not to comment in a never-ending way on the EPA's responses to their comments. Cf. Chemical Mfrs. Ass'n v. EPA, 870 F.2d 177, 200-02 (rejecting argument that agency was required to reopen notice-and-comment period before relying on economic data updated and expanded after the close of a comment period), clarified, 885 F.2d 253, later proceeding, 885 F.2d 1276 (5th Cir.1989) (concerning attorneys' fees).

Petitioners also challenge the EPA's promulgation of five best management practices (BMPs) to be included in NPDES permits. According to petitioners, the EPA failed to provide adequate notice of the BMPs contained in the final rule.10 They contend (1) that no actual wording for the BMP part of the regulations was ever proposed, and (2) that only fourteen sentences in one Federal Register comprise the EPA's total notice that it was considering promulgating BMPs, and these sentences implied that the EPA was considering requiring BMPs only on a case-by-case basis. We reject this challenge, but address each contention in turn.

The EPA's failure to propose in advance the actual wording of the BMPs does not make the BMPs invalid. The EPA need not "publish in advance every precise proposal which it may ultimately adopt as a rule." California Citizens Band Ass'n v. United States, 375 F.2d 43, 48 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 389 U.S. 844, 88 S.Ct. 96, 19 L.Ed.2d 112 (1967). Instead, the EPA is only required to publish in this context the "terms or substance of the proposed rule or a description of the subjects and issues involved." 5 U.S.C. Sec. 553(b)(3) (1988).

The EPA's discussions of the BMPs in both the original proposal and the second notice clearly describe "the subjects and issues" the BMPs involve. See 50 Fed.Reg. 47,982, 48,000 (1985) (original proposal); 52 Fed.Reg. 9,414, 9,416 (1987) (second notice of new information and request for comments). For instance, the EPA discussed in the preamble to the proposed rule and the draft Development Document its authority to impose BMPs under 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1314(e) (1982). It also specifically discussed the possible BMPs that a permit-issuing authority could adopt in NPDES permits to minimize the amount of excess water entering the mine site, to divert water around the mine, and to prevent the release of settling pond sludge into receiving waters. See 50 Fed.Reg. 47,982, 48,000 (1985); EPA, Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for the Ore Mining and Dressing Point Source Category, Gold Placer Mine Subcategory, at VIII-34 to VIII-37 (1985), reprinted in R.A. 531, 532-35.11 Given these descriptions, the failure of the EPA to propose in advance the actual wording of the BMPs does not render them invalid.

We turn next to petitioners' other two allegations: that the fourteen sentences in the original proposal which stated that the EPA was considering the BMPs are insufficient notice to the public, and that, unlike the final rule, the original proposal implied that the BMPs would be required on a case-by-case basis.12

First, the fourteen sentences about the BMPs comprise an entire section in the EPA's original proposal. They were not difficult to find. And so long as enumeration is desired here, we note that these fourteen sentences contained more than 340 words. We will not strike down the EPA's promulgation of BMPs merely on the grounds that this notice was short.

Instead, the crucial inquiry is whether this section gave adequate notice of the BMPs. Petitioners are correct that whereas the final rule mandated BMPs, the discussion in the original proposal and the second notice mentioned only the possibility that the EPA would "develop[ ] case-by-case BMP requirements for NPDES permits." 50 Fed.Reg. 47,982, 48,000 (1985). Yet the fact that a final rule varies from a proposal, even substantially, does not automatically void the regulations. Rather, we must determine whether the inclusion of the BMPs in the final rule was in character with the original proposal and a logical outgrowth of the notice and comments received. See, e.g., American Paper Inst. v. EPA, 660 F.2d 954, 959 n. 13 (4th Cir.1981) (noting that an agency may make substantial changes if they "are in character with the original proposal and are a logical outgrowth of the notice and comments already given"); Chemical Mfrs. Ass'n, 870 F.2d at 203 (upholding limitations not originally specifically proposed by the EPA because they were a logical outgrowth of notice and comments). Here, the EPA decided to include the BMPs in the final rule only after public comments strongly recommended adoption of mandatory BMPs for gold placer mines. See, e.g., Proposal Comment G-6, in 1 EPA, Summary Comments 1 Through 45 and Responses, at 76, reprinted in R.A. 217, 318. These comments emphasized the importance of BMPs to ensure cost-effective, environmentally sound mining operations. See, e.g., id. The EPA apparently found the comments persuasive, and it therefore included the BMPs in the final rule. Given all this, we conclude that the inclusion of BMPs in the final rule was both very much in character with the original proposal and a logical outgrowth of the notice and comments.

Informed changes and distinctions are the very raison d'etre of the notice-and-comment period. We conclude that the EPA provided sufficient notice with regard to the BMPs.

The AMA claims that the EPA's determination in the final rule that recycling technology is the best available technology economically achievable (BAT) for all mines was sprung on the public without notice. The AMA argues that all of the public notices preceding the final rule indicated that recycling was not economically possible for small mines. The EPA's sudden turnaround, as the AMA views it, deprived the public of the opportunity to comment on the feasibility of recycling for small mines.

We disagree with the AMA's contention that the public was not on notice to comment as to whether recycling could be BAT for all mines. The EPA published a second notice of new information and request for comments on March 24, 1987. See 52 Fed.Reg. 9,414 (1987). There the EPA stated that its economic analyses indicated that "recycling of process wastewater is economically achievable for small open-cut mines processing between 1,500 and 70,000 yd³/year." Id. at 9,423. The EPA then stated that "BAT limitations for these mines, therefore, would be zero discharge of process wastewater." Id. at 9,423-24.13 The Agency also noted that it was "considering new limitations based on best practicable technology (BPT), best conventional technology (BCT), best available technology (BAT), and new source performance standards (NSPS)," and that it was soliciting comments on these possible changes. Id. at 9,414.

These statements conflict with the AMA's assertion that the EPA never indicated that it was contemplating adoption of recycling as BAT for small mines. Furthermore, the record demonstrates that during the spring and summer of 1987 the EPA received numerous comments on the changes proposed in this second notice of information; several of these addressed the question of whether recycling should be BAT for the placer mining industry. See, e.g., Summary Comment E-14, in EPA, Summary Comments 46 Through 130 and Responses, at 86, reprinted in R.A. 341, 465 ("Commenters supported the designation of complete recycling of wastewater as the 'Best Available Technology' for the placer mining industry in Alaska."). Commenters clearly recognized that the EPA was considering designating recycling as BAT for small mines.

In short, we conclude that the EPA provided sufficient notice with regard to the proposed adoption of recycling as BAT for small mines.D. The Final Rule

Petitioners make a host of arguments about the content of the final rule. For instance, they attack the EPA's setting of BPT and BAT limitations. They also allege various errors by the EPA in its promulgation of BMPs and its enunciation of new-source criteria. We group most of these arguments into two broad categories: challenges to the merits of the limitations, and arguments concerning the EPA's selection and presentation of data and its methods of analysis. We address each group in turn and then discuss the remaining challenges to the final rule.

Petitioners challenge the merits of the EPA's regulations on a number of grounds; indeed, virtually every aspect of the regulations is attacked. To the extent the regulations may be divided into component parts (e.g., the BPT limitations, the BAT limitations, and new-source criteria), we address petitioners' arguments along those lines.

a. Determination of BPT

We turn first to petitioners' argument that the EPA erred in its determination that settling ponds are the best practicable control technology currently available (BPT) within the placer mining industry. There is no dispute that settling ponds are currently available pollution control technology; in fact, the AMA concedes that they are now used by almost all miners. Rather, petitioners contend that the EPA failed to use a "cost-benefit analysis" in determining that settling ponds were BPT for placer mining. They also argue that the EPA failed to consider costs when it set forth BPT limitations governing settleable solids for small mines.

The Clean Water Act controls when and how the EPA should require BPT. Under 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1311(b)(1)(A), the Act requires "effluent limitations for point sources ... which shall require the application of the best practicable control technology currently available [BPT]." Under this section, the EPA is to determine whether a technology is BPT; the factors it considers "shall include ... total cost of" the technology "in relation to effluent reduction benefits to be achieved" from it, the age of equipment, engineering aspects, "non-water quality environmental impact ... and such other factors as the Administrator deems appropriate." 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1314(b)(1)(B) (1982).

From this statutory language, it is "plain that, as a general rule, the EPA is required to consider the costs and benefits of a proposed technology in its inquiry to determine the BPT." Association of Pacific Fisheries v. EPA, 615 F.2d 794, 805 (9th Cir.1980). The EPA has broad discretion in weighing these competing factors. Id. It may determine that a technology is not BPT on the basis of this cost-benefit analysis only when the costs are "wholly disproportionate" to the potential effluent-reduction benefits. Id.; Chemical Mfrs. Ass'n, 870 F.2d at 205.

We look first to whether the EPA properly considered the costs of BPT and second to whether it properly weighed these costs against the benefits.

First, the record shows that the EPA properly considered costs in conducting the analysis which led to the determination that settling ponds are BPT and to the establishment of BPT effluent limitations for settleable solids. The EPA used a model-mine analysis to estimate the costs to mines of installing settling ponds. The Agency developed several model mines to represent the typical operating and compliance costs that open-cut mines and dredges of various sizes would incur.14 Commenters attempted to ensure that the model-mine analysis reflected actual industry conditions, and the EPA accordingly modified the analysis when it thought it appropriate during the rulemaking.15 The EPA then determined, for each of its model mines, the incremental costs that would be incurred to construct and operate settling ponds to retain wastewater long enough to achieve a certain settleable solids level.16 It proceeded to conduct a detailed and complex assessment of the effect of the compliance costs on the mining industry's profits.

The EPA then properly weighed these costs against the benefits of settling ponds. Its data indicated that placer mine wastewater contained high levels of solids and metals that were reduced substantially by simple settling. The upshot of the EPA's analysis was its estimation that installation of settling ponds by open-cut mines industry-wide would remove over four billion pounds of solids at a cost of approximately $2.2 million--a removal cost of less than $1 per pound of solids. See EPA, Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Effluent Limitations for the Gold Placer Mining Industry, Table 9 (1988), reprinted in R.A. 717, 736. The Agency therefore concluded that "the pollutant reduction benefits associated with compliance justify the costs for this subcategory." 53 Fed.Reg. 18,764, 18,772 (1988).

We uphold the EPA's determination of BPT.

b. Determination of BAT

(1) Analysis of Costs

We next confront the AMA's challenge to the EPA's determination that recirculation of process wastewater is the best available technology economically achievable (BAT) in the placer mining industry. See 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1311(b)(2)(A) (1982). By definition, BAT limitations must be both technologically available and economically achievable. 33 U.S.C. Sec. 1314(b)(2)(B) (1982); see also Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. v. EPA, 863 F.2d 1420, 1426 (9th Cir.1988). We conclude that the EPA's BAT limitations were both and therefore uphold them.

The technological availability of recirculation of process wastewater is not in dispute; in fact, placer miners commonly practice it. It is recirculation's economic

achievability that petitioners challenge.

In determining the economic achievability of a technology, the EPA must consider the "cost" of meeting BAT limitations, but need not compare such cost with the benefits of effluent reduction. See National Crushed Stone Ass'n, 449 U.S. at 71-72, 101 S.Ct. at 300-01; Association of Pacific Fisheries, 615 F.2d at 818. The Agency measures costs on a "reasonableness standard"; it has considerable discretion in weighing the technology's costs, which are less-important factors than in setting BPT limitations. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 863 F.2d at 1426; American Iron & Steel Inst. v. EPA, 526 F.2d 1027, 1052 n. 51 (1975) ("it is clear that for 'BATEA' [i.e., BAT] standards, cost was to be less important than for 'BPCTCA' [i.e., BPT] standards"), modified in other part, 560 F.2d 589 (3d Cir.1977), cert. denied, 435 U.S. 914, 98 S.Ct. 1467, 55 L.Ed.2d 505 (1978).

The record demonstrates that the EPA weighed the costs that recirculation would impose on gold placer mining. These include the costs for pumps to recirculate water from the settling ponds, as well as for piping, fuel, installation, and maintenance of equipment.17 Using various projections of gold prices, the Agency then calculated the number of mines that would be forced to close.18 Based on these figures, the EPA concluded that recirculation of process wastewater was economically achievable and therefore BAT.19 This conclusion was based on its data and can be supported by the data. In short, we find that the EPA "considered the relevant factors and articulated a rational connection between the facts found and the choice made." Baltimore Gas & Elec. Co.,