Florence B. Corcoran Wife Of/and Wayne D. Corcoran v. United Healthcare, Inc., and Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Alabama, Inc.

This appeal requires us to decide whether ERISA pre-empts a state-law malpractice action brought by the beneficiary of an ERISA plan against a company that provides “utilization review” services to the plan. We also address the availability under ERISA of extracontractual damages. The district court granted the defendants’ motion for summary judgment, holding that ERISA both pre-empted the plaintiffs’ medical malpractice claim and precluded them from recovering emotional distress damages. We affirm.

I. BACKGROUND

The basic facts are undisputed. Florence Corcoran, a long-time employee of South Central Bell Telephone Company (Bell), became pregnant in early 1989. In July, her obstetrician, Dr. Jason Collins, recommended that she have complete bed rest during the final months of her pregnancy. Mrs. Corcoran applied to Bell for temporary disability benefits for the remainder of her pregnancy, but the benefits were denied. This prompted Dr. Collins to write to Dr. Theodore J. Borgman, medical consultant for Bell, and explain that Mrs. Cor-coran had several medical problems which placed her “in a category of high risk pregnancy.” Bell again denied disability benefits. Unbeknownst to Mrs. Corcoran or Dr. Collins, Dr. Borgman solicited a second opinion on Mrs. Corcoran’s condition from another obstetrician, Dr. Simon Ward. In a letter to Dr. Borgman, Dr. Ward indicated that he had reviewed Mrs. Corcoran’s medical records and suggested that “the company would be at considerable risk denying her doctor's recommendation.” As Mrs. Corcoran neared her delivery date, Dr. Collins ordered her hospitalized so that *1323 he could monitor the fetus around the clock. 1

Mrs. Corcoran was a member of Bell’s Medical Assistance Plan (MAP or “the Plan”). MAP is a self-funded welfare benefit plan which provides medical benefits to eligible Bell employees. It is administered by defendant Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Alabama (Blue Cross) pursuant to an Administrative Services Agreement between Bell and Blue Cross. The parties agree that it is governed by ERISA. 2 Under a portion of the Plan known as the “Quality Care Program” (QCP), participants must obtain advance approval for overnight hospital admissions and certain medical procedures (“pre-certification”), and must obtain approval on a continuing basis once they are admitted to a hospital (“concurrent review”), or plan benefits to which they otherwise would be entitled are reduced.

QCP is administered by defendant United Healthcare (United) pursuant to an agreement with Bell. United performs a form of cost-containment service that has commonly become known as “utilization review.” See Blum, An Analysis of Legal Liability in Health Care Utilization Review and Case Management, 26 Hous.L.Rev. 191, 192-93 (1989) (Utilization review refers to “external evaluations that are based on established clinical criteria and are conducted by third-party payors, purchasers, or health care organizers to evaluate the appropriateness of an episode, or series of episodes, of medical care.”). The Summary Plan Description (SPD) explains QCP as follows:

The Quality Care Program (QCP), administered by United HealthCare, Inc., assists you and your covered dependents in securing quality medical care according to the provisions of the Plan while helping reduce risk and expense due to unnecessary hospitalization and surgery. They do this by providing you with information which will permit you (in consultation with your doctor) to evaluate alternatives to surgery and hospitalization when those alternatives are medically appropriate. In addition, QCP will monitor any certified hospital confinement to keep you informed as to whether or not the stay is covered by the Plan.

Two paragraphs below, the SPD contains this statement: When reading this booklet, remember that all decisions regarding your medical care are up to you and your doctor. It goes on to explain that when a beneficiary does not contact United or follow its pre-certification decision, a “QCP Penalty” is applied. The penalty involves reduction of benefits by 20 percent for the remainder of the calendar year or until the annual out-of-pocket limit is reached. Moreover, the annual out-of-pocket limit is increased from $1,000 to $1,250 in covered expenses, not including any applicable deductible. According to the QCP Administrative Manual, the QCP penalty is automatically applied when a participant fails to contact United. However, if a participant complies with QCP by contacting United, but does not follow its decision, the penalty may be waived following an internal appeal if the medical facts show that the treatment chosen was appropriate.

A more complete description of QCP and the services provided by United is contained in a separate booklet. Under the heading “WHAT QCP DOES” the booklet explains:

Whenever your doctor recommends surgery or hospitalization for you or a covered dependent, QCP will provide an independent review of your condition (or your covered dependent’s). The purpose of the review is to assess the need for surgery or hospitalization and to determine the appropriate length of stay for a hospitalization, based on nationally accepted medical guidelines. As part of *1324 the review process, QCP will discuss with your doctor the appropriateness of the treatments recommended and the availability of alternative types of treatments — or locations for treatment — that are equally effective, involve less risk, and are more cost effective.

The next paragraph is headed “INDEPENDENT, PROFESSIONAL REVIEW” and states:

United Health Care, an independent professional medical review organization, has been engaged to provide services under QCP. United’s staff includes doctors, nurses, and other medical professionals knowledgeable about the health care delivery system. Together with your doctor, they work to assure that you and your covered family members receive the most appropriate medical care.

At several points in the booklet, the themes of “independent medical review” and “reduction of unnecessary risk and expense” are repeated. Under a section entitled “THE QUALITY CARE PROGRAM ... AT A GLANCE” the booklet states that QCP “Provides independent, professional review when surgery or hospitalization is recommended — to assist you in making an enlightened decision regarding your treatment.” QCP “[pjrovides improved quality of care by eliminating medically unnecessary treatment,” but beneficiaries who fail to use it “may be exposed to unnecessary health risks.... ” Elsewhere, in the course of pointing out that studies show one-third of all surgery may be unnecessary, the booklet explains that programs such as QCP “help reduce unnecessary and inappropriate care and eliminate their associated costs.” Thus, “one important service of QCP will help you get a second opinion when your doctor recommends surgery.”

The booklet goes on to describe the circumstances under which QCP must be utilized. When a Plan member’s doctor recommends admission to the hospital, [i]ndependent medical professionals will review, with the patient’s doctor, the medical findings and the proposed course of treatment, including the medically necessary length of confinement. The Quality Care Program may require additional tests or information (including second opinions), when determined necessary during consultation between QCP professionals and the attending physician.

When United certifies a hospital stay, it monitors the continuing necessity of the stay. It also determines, for certain medical procedures and surgeries, whether a second opinion is necessary, and authorizes, where appropriate, certain alternative forms of care. Beneficiaries are strongly encouraged to use QCP to avoid loss of benefits: “ ‘fully using' QCP means following the course of treatment that’s recommended by QCP’s medical professionals.”

In accordance with the QCP portion of the plan, Dr. Collins sought pre-certification from United for Mrs. Corcoran’s hospital stay. Despite Dr. Collins's recommendation, United determined that hospitalization was not necessary, and instead authorized 10 hours per day of home nursing care. 3 Mrs. Corcoran entered the hospital on October 3, 1989, but, because United had not pre-certified her stay, she returned home on October 12. On October 25, during a period of time when no nurse was on duty, the fetus went into distress and died.

Mrs. Corcoran and her husband, Wayne, filed a wrongful death action in Louisiana state court alleging that their unborn child died as a result of various acts of negligence committed by Blue Cross and United. Both sought damages for the lost love, society and affection of their unborn child. In addition, Mrs. Corcoran sought damages for the aggravation of a pre-existing depressive condition and the loss of consortium caused by such aggravation, and Mr. Corcoran sought damages for loss of consortium. The defendants removed the action to federal court on grounds that it was *1325 pre-empted by ERISA 4 and that there was complete diversity among the parties.

Shortly thereafter, the defendants moved for summary judgment. They argued that the Corcorans’ cause of action, properly characterized, sought damages for improper handling of a claim from two entities whose responsibilities were simply to administer benefits under an ERISA-governed plan. They contended that their relationship to Mrs. Corcoran came into existence solely as a result of an ERISA plan and was defined entirely by the plan. Thus, they urged the court to view the claims as “relating to” an ERISA plan, and therefore within the broad scope of state law claims pre-empted by the statute. In their opposition to the motion, the Corcor-ans argued that “[t]his case essentially boils down to one for malpractice against United HealthCare....” They contended that under this court’s analysis in Sommers Drug Stores Co. Employee Profit Sharing Trust v. Corrigan Enterprises, Inc., 793 F.2d 1456 (5th Cir.1986), cert. denied, 479 U.S. 1034, 107 S.Ct. 884, 93 L.Ed.2d 837 (1987), their cause of action must be classified as a state law of general application which involves an exercise of traditional state authority and affects principal ERISA entities in their individual capacities. This classification, they argued, together with the fact that pre-emption would contravene the purposes of ERISA by leaving them without a remedy, leads to the conclusion that the action is permissible notwithstanding ERISA.

The district court, relying on the broad ERISA pre-emption principles developed by the Supreme Court and the Fifth Circuit, granted the motion. The court noted that ERISA pre-emption extends to state law claims “ ‘of general application,’ including tort claims where ERISA ordinarily plays no role in the state law at issue.” (citing Metropolitan Life Ins. Co. v. Taylor, 481 U.S. 58, 107 S.Ct. 1542, 95 L.Ed.2d 55 (1987) and Pilot Life Ins. Co. v. Dedeaux, 481 U.S. 41, 107 S.Ct. 1549, 95 L.Ed.2d 39 (1987)). The court found that the state law claim advanced by the Corcorans “relate[d] to” the employee benefit plan (citing the statutory pre-emption clause, ERISA § 514(a)), and therefore was pre-empted, because

[b]ut for the ERISA plan, the defendants would have played no role in Mrs. Cor-coran’s pregnancy; the sole reason the defendants had anything to do with her pregnancy is because the terms of the ERISA plan directed Mrs. Corcoran to the defendants (or at least to United HealthCare) for approval of coverage of the medical care she initially sought.

The court held that, because the ERISA plan was the source of the relationship between the Corcorans and the defendants, the Corcorans’ attempt to distinguish United’s role in paying claims from its role as a source of professional medical advice was unconvincing.

The Corcorans filed a motion for reconsideration under Rule 59 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. They did not ask the district court to reconsider its pre-emption ruling, but instead contended that language in the district court’s opinion had implicitly recognized that they had a separate cause of action under ERISA’s civil enforcement mechanism, § 502(a)(3). 5 They argued that the Supreme Court’s decision in Massachusetts Mutual Life Ins. Co. v. Russell, 473 U.S. 134, 105 S.Ct. 3085, 87 L.Ed.2d 96 (1985), did not foreclose the possibility that compensatory damages such as they sought constituted “other ap *1326 propriate equitable relief” available under § 502(a)(3) for violations of ERISA or the terms of an ERISA plan. The district court denied the motion. Although the court recognized that there was authority to the contrary, it pointed out that “[t]he vast majority of federal appellate courts have ... held that a beneficiary under an ERISA health plan may not recover under section 509(a)(3) [sic] of ERISA compensatory or consequential damages for emotional distress or other claims beyond medical expenses covered by the plan.” (citations omitted). Moreover, the court pointed out, a prerequisite to recovery under § 502(a)(3) is a violation of the terms of ERISA itself. ERISA does not place upon the defendants a substantive responsibility in connection with the provision of medical advice which, if breached, would support a claim under § 502(a)(3). The court entered final judgment in favor of Blue Cross and United, and this appeal followed.

II. STANDARD OF REVIEW

Because this case is on appeal from the district court’s grant of summary judgment, our review is plenary. Dorsett v. Board of Trustees for State Colleges & Universities, 940 F.2d 121, 123 (5th Cir.1991). We view the evidence in the light most favorable to the nonmoving party, id., and must affirm if “the pleadings, depositions, answers to interrogatories, and admissions on file, together with the affidavits, if any, show that there is no genuine issue as to any material fact and that the moving party is entitled to a judgment as a matter of law.” Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(c). As this case currently stands, the parties dispute not the relevant facts, but the legal conclusions that must be applied to those facts. As the Corcorans put it, “[t]he question on appeal is whether the plaintiffs are afforded any relief, under state law or ERISA, for damages caused by [the defendants’ actions].”

ill. PRE-EMPTION OF THE STATE LAW CAUSE OF ACTION

A. The Nature of the Corcorans’ State Law Claims

The Corcorans’ original petition in state court alleged that acts of negligence committed by Blue Cross and United caused the death of their unborn child. Specifically, they alleged that Blue Cross wrongfully denied appropriate medical care, failed adequately to oversee the medical decisions of United, and failed to provide United with Mrs. Corcoran’s complete medical background. They alleged that United wrongfully denied the medical care recommended by Dr. Collins and wrongfully determined that home nursing care was adequate for her condition. It is evident that the Corcor-ans no longer pursue any theory of recovery against Blue Cross. Although they mention in their appellate brief the fact that they asserted a claim against Blue Cross, they challenge only the district court’s conclusion that ERISA pre-empts their state law cause of action against United. 6 We, therefore, analyze solely the question of pre-emption of the claims against United. See Hulsey v. State of Texas, 929 F.2d 168, 172 (5th Cir.1991) (issues stated but not briefed need not be considered on appeal).

The claims against United arise from a relatively recent phenomenon in the health care delivery system — the prospective review by a third party of the necessity of medical care. Systems of prospective and concurrent review, rather than traditional retrospective review, were widely adopted throughout the 1980s as a method of containing the rapidly rising costs of health care. Blum, supra, at 192; Furrow, Medical Malpractice and Cost Containment: Tightening the Screws, 36 Case Western L.Rev. 985, 986-87 (1986). Under the traditional retrospective system (also commonly known as the fee-for-service system), the patient obtained medical treatment and the insurer reviewed the provider’s claims for payment to determine whether they were *1327 covered under the plan. Denial of a claim meant that the cost of treatment was absorbed by an entity other than the one designed to spread the risk of medical costs — the insurer.

Congress’s adoption in 1983 of a system under which hospitals are reimbursed for services provided to Medicare patients based upon average cost calculations for patients with particular diagnoses spurred private insurers to institute similar programs in which prospective décisions are made about the appropriate level of care. Although plans vary, the typical prospective review system requires some form of pre-admission certification by a third party (e.g., the HMO if an HMO-associated doctor provides care; an outside organization such as United if an independent physician provides care) before a hospital stay. Concurrent review involves the monitoring of a hospital stay to determine its continuing appropriateness. See generally, Blum, supra, at 192-93; Tiano, The Legal Implications of HMO Cost Containment Measures, 14 Seton Hall Legis.J. 79, 80 (1990). As the SPD makes clear, United performs this sort of prospective and concurrent review (generically, “utilization review”) in connection with, inter alia, the hospitalization of Bell employees.

The Corcorans based their action against United on Article 2315 of the Louisiana Civil Code, which provides that “[e]very act whatever of man that causes damage to another obliges him by whose fault it happened to repair it.” Article 2315 provides parents with a cause of action for the wrongful death of their unborn children, Danos v. St. Pierre, 402 So.2d 633, 637-38 (La.1981), and also places liability on health care providers when they fail to live up to the applicable standard of care. Chivleatto v. Divinity, 379 So.2d 784, 786 (La.App. 4th Cir.1979). Whether Article 2315 permits a negligence suit against a third party provider of utilization review services, however, has yet to be decided by the Louisiana courts. The potential for imposing liability on these entities is only beginning to be explored, with only one state explicitly permitting a suit based on a utilization review company’s allegedly negligent decision about medical care to go forward. Wilson v. Blue Cross of So. California, 222 Cal.App.3d 660, 271 Cal.Rptr. 876, 883 (1990) (reversing summary judgment for utilization review company which determined that further hospitalization was not necessary; ERISA not implicated); 7 see also Wickline v. State of California, 192 Cal.App.3d 1630, 239 Cal.Rptr. 810, 819 (1986) (stating, in dicta, that negligent implementation of cost containment mechanisms such as utilization review can lead to liability; ERISA not implicated), cert. granted, 231 Cal.Rptr. 560, 727 P.2d 753, review dismissed, cause remanded, 239 Cal.Rptr. 805, 741 P.2d 613 (1987). 8

*1328 In the absence of clear Louisiana authority for their lawsuit, the Corcorans rely on Green v. Walker, 910 F.2d 291 (5th Cir.1990). We held in Green that Article 2315 imposes a duty of due care upon physicians hired by employers to conduct employment-related exams on employees. Id. at 296. The cause of action recognized in Green, however, is not analogous to the cause of action brought against United because Green involved an actual physical examination by a doctor hired by an employer, not the detached decision of a utilization review company. Despite the lack of clear Louisiana authority supporting the Corcorans’ theory of recovery against United, we can resolve the pre-emption question presented in this appeal. The law in this area is only beginning to develop, and it does not appear to us that Louisiana law clearly forecloses the possibility of recovery against United. Thus, assuming that on these facts the Corcorans might be capable of stating a cause of action for malpractice, 9 our task now is to determine whether such a cause of action is pre-empted by ERISA.

B. Principles of ERISA Pre-emption

The central inquiry in determining whether a federal statute pre-empts state law is the intent of Congress. FMC Corp. v. Holliday, — U.S. -, 111 S.Ct. 403, 407, 112 L.Ed.2d 356 (1990); Allis-Chalmers Corp. v. Lueck, 471 U.S. 202, 208,105 S.Ct. 1904, 1909, 85 L.Ed.2d 206 (1985). In performing this analysis we begin with any statutory language that expresses an intent to pre-empt, but we look also to the purpose and structure of the statute as a whole. FMC Corp., 111 S.Ct. at 407; Ingersoll-Rand Co. v. McClendon, — U.S. -, 111 S.Ct. 478, 482, 112 L.Ed.2d 474 (1990).

ERISA contains an explicit pre-emption clause, which provides, in relevant part:

Except as provided in subsection (b) of this section,' the provisions of this sub-chapter and subchapter III of this chapter shall supersede any and all State laws insofar as they may now or hereafter relate to any employee benefit plan described in section 1003(a)....

ERISA § 514(a). 10 It is by now well-established that the “deliberately expansive” language of this clause, Pilot Life Ins. Co. v. Dedeaux, 481 U.S. 41, 46, 107 S.Ct. 1549, 1552, 95 L.Ed.2d 39 (1987), is a signal that it is be construed extremely broadly. See FMC Corp., 111 S.Ct. at 407 (“[t]he preemption clause is conspicuous for its breadth”); Ingersoll-Rand, 111 S.Ct. at 482. 11 The key words “relate to” are used in such a way as to expand pre-emption *1329 beyond state laws that relate to the specific subjects covered by ERISA, such as reporting, disclosure and fiduciary obligations. Id. at 482. Thus, state laws “relate[] to” employee benefit plans in a much broader sense — whenever they have “a connection with or reference to such a plan.” Shaw v. Delta Air Lines, Inc., 463 U.S. 85, 96-97, 103 S.Ct. 2890, 2899-2900, 77 L.Ed.2d 490 (1983). This sweeping pre-emption of state law is consistent with Congress’s decision to create a comprehensive, uniform federal scheme for the regulation of employee benefit plans. See Ingersoll-Rand, 111 S.Ct. at 482; Pilot Life, 481 U.S. at 45-46, 107 S.Ct. at 1551-52.

The most obvious class of pre-empted state laws are those that are specifically designed to affect ERISA-governed employee benefit plans. See Mackey v. Lanier Collection Agency & Serv., Inc., 486 U.S. 825, 829-30, 108 S.Ct. 2182, 2185-86, 100 L.Ed.2d 836 (1988) (statute explicitly barring garnishment of ERISA plan funds is pre-empted); Ingersoll-Rand, 111 S.Ct. at 483 (cause of action allowing recovery from employer when discharge is premised upon attempt to avoid contributing to pension plan is pre-empted). But a law is not saved from pre-emption merely because it does not target employee benefit plans. Indeed, much pre-emption litigation involves laws of general application which, when applied in particular settings, can be said to have a connection with or a reference to an ERISA plan. See Pilot Life, 481 U.S. at 47-48, 107 S.Ct. at 1552-53 (common law tort and contract causes of action seeking damages for improper processing of a claim for benefits under a disability plan are pre-empted); Shaw, 463 U.S. at 95-100, 103 S.Ct. at 2898-2901 (statute interpreted by state court as prohibiting plans from discriminating on the basis of pregnancy is pre-empted); Christopher v. Mobil Oil Corp., 950 F.2d 1209, 1218 (5th Cir.1992) (common law fraud and negligent misrepresentation claims that allege reliance on agreements or representations about the coverage of a plan are pre-empted), petition for cert. filed 60 U.S.L.W. 3829 (U.S. May 26, 1992) (No. 91-1881); Lee v. E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., 894 F.2d 755, 758 (5th Cir.1990) (same). On the other hand, the Court has recognized that not every conceivable cause of action that may be brought against an ERISA-covered plan is pre-empted. “Some state actions may affect employee' benefit plans in too tenuous, remote or peripheral a manner to warrant a finding that the law ‘relates to’ the plan.” Shaw, 463 U.S. at 100 n. 21, 103 S.Ct. at 2901 n. 21. Thus, “run-of-the-mill state-law claims such as unpaid rent, failure to pay creditors, or even torts committed by an ERISA plan” are not pre-empted. Mackey, 486 U.S. at 833, 108 S.Ct. at 2187 (discussing these types of claims in dicta).

C. Pre-emption of the Corcorans’ Claims

Initially, we observe that the common law causes of action advanced by the Corcorans are not that species of law “specifically designed” to affect ERISA plans, for the liability rules they seek to invoke neither make explicit reference to nor are premised on the existence of an ERISA plan. See Ingersoll-Rand, 111 S.Ct. at 483. Rather, applied in this case against a defendant that provides benefit-related services to an ERISA plan, the generally applicable negligence-based causes of action may have an effect on an ERISA-governed plan. In our view, the pre-emption question devolves into an assessment of the significance of these effects.

1. United’s position — it makes benefit determinations, not medical decisions

United’s argument in favor of pre-emption is grounded in the notion that the decision it made concerning Mrs. Corcoran was not primarily a medical decision, but instead was a decision made in its capacity as a plan fiduciary about what benefits were authorized under the Plan. All it did, it argues, was determine whether Mrs. Cor-coran qualified for the benefits provided by the plan by applying previously established eligibility criteria. The argument’s coup de grace is that under well-established prece *1330 dent, 12 participants may not sue in tort to redress injuries flowing from decisions about what benefits are to be paid under a plan. One commentator has endorsed this view of lawsuits against providers of utilization review services, arguing that, because medical services are the “benefits” provided by a utilization review company, complaints about the quality of medical services (i.e., lawsuits for negligence) “can therefore be characterized as claims founded upon a constructive denial of plan benefits.” Chittenden, Malpractice Liability and Managed Health Care: History & Prognosis, 26 Tort & Ins. Law J. 451, 489 (1991).

In support of its argument, United points to its explanatory booklet and its language stating that the company advises the patient’s doctor “what the medical plan will pay for, based on a review of [the patient’s] clinical information and nationally accepted medical guidelines for the treatment of [the patient’s] condition.” It also relies on statements to the effect that the ultimate medical decisions are up to the beneficiary’s doctor. It acknowledges at various points that its decision about what benefits would be paid was based on a consideration of medical information, but the thrust of the argument is that it was simply performing commonplace administrative duties akin to claims handling.

Because it was merely performing claims handling functions when it rejected Dr. Collins’s request to approve Mrs. Corcoran’s hospitalization, United contends, the principles of Pilot Life and its progeny squarely foreclose this lawsuit. In Pilot Life, a beneficiary sought damages under various state-law tort and contract theories from the insurance company that determined eligibility for the employer’s long term disability benefit plan. The company had paid benefits for two years, but there followed a period during which the company terminated and reinstated the beneficiary several times. 481 U.S. at 43, 107 S.Ct. at 1550. The Court made clear, however, that ERISA pre-empts state-law tort and contract actions in which a beneficiary seeks to recover damages for improper processing of a claim for benefits. Id. at 48-49, 107 S.Ct. at 1553-54. United suggests that its actions here were analogous to those of the insurance company in Pilot Life, and therefore urges us to apply that decision.

2. The Corcorans’ position — United makes medical decisions, not benefit determinations

The Corcorans assert that Pilot Life and its progeny are inapposite because they are not advancing a claim for improper processing of benefits. Rather, they say, they seek to recover solely for United’s erroneous medical decision that Mrs. Corcoran did not require hospitalization during the last month of her pregnancy. This argument, of course, depends on viewing United’s action in this case as a medical decision, and not merely an administrative determination about benefit entitlements. Accordingly, the Corcorans, pointing to the statements United makes in the QCP booklet concerning its medical expertise, contend that United exercised medical judgment which is outside the purview of ERISA pre-emption.

The Corcorans suggest that a medical negligence claim is permitted under the analytical framework we have developed for assessing pre-emption claims. Relying on Sommers Drug Stores Co. Employee Profit Sharing Trust v. Corrigan Enterprises, Inc., 793 F.2d 1456 (5th Cir.1986), cert. denied, 479 U.S. 1034, 107 S.Ct. 884, 93 L.Ed.2d 837 (1987), they contend that we should not find the state law under which they proceed pre-empted because it (1) involves the exercise of traditional state authority and (2) is a law of general application which, although it affects relations between principal ERISA entities in this case, is not designed to affect the ERISA relationship. 13

*1331 3. Our view — United makes medical decisions incident to benefit determinations

We cannot fully agree with either United or the Corcorans. Ultimately, we conclude that United makes medical decisions — indeed, United gives medical advice — but it does so in the context of making a determination about the availability of benefits under the plan. Accordingly, we hold that the Louisiana tort action asserted by the Corcorans for the wrongful death of their child allegedly resulting from United’s erroneous medical decision is pre-empted by ERISA.

Turning first to the question of the characterization of United’s actions, we note that the QCP booklet and the SPD lend substantial support to the Corcorans’ argument that United makes medical decisions. United’s own booklet tells beneficiaries that it “assesses] the need for surgery or hospitalization and ... determine^] the appropriate length of stay for a hospitalization, based on nationally accepted medical guidelines.” United “will discuss with your doctor the appropriateness of the treatments recommended and the availability of alternative types of treatments.” Further, “United’s staff includes doctors, nurses, and other medical professionals knowledgeable about the health care delivery system. Together with your doctor, they work to assure that you and your covered family members receive the most appropriate medical care.” According to the SPD, United will “provid[e] you with information which will permit you (in consultation with your doctor) to evaluate alternatives to surgery and hospitalization when those alternatives are medically appropriate.”

United makes much of the disclaimer that decisions about medical care are up to the beneficiary and his or her doctor. While that may be so, and while the disclaimer may support the conclusion that the relationship between United and the beneficiary is not that of doctor-patient, it does not mean that United does not make medical decisions or dispense medical advice. See Wickline, 239 Cal.Rptr. at 819 (declining to hold Medi-Cal liable but recognizing that it made a medical judgment); Macaulay, Health Care Cost Containment and Medical Malpractice: On a Collision Course, 19 Suffolk U.L.Rev. 91, 106-07 (1986) (“As illustrated in [Wick-line], an adverse prospective determination on the ‘necessity’ of medical treatment may involve complex medical judgment.”) (footnote omitted). In response, United argues that any such medical determination or advice is made or given in the context of administering the benefits available under the Bell plan. Supporting United’s position is the contract between United and Bell, which provides that “[United] shall contact the Participant’s physician and based upon the medical evidence and normative data determine whether the Participant should be eligible to receive full plan benefits for the recommended hospitalization and the duration of benefits.”

United argues that the decision it makes in this, the prospective context, is no different than the decision an insurer makes in the traditional retrospective context. The question in each case is “what the medical plan will pay for, based on a review of [the beneficiary’s] clinical information and nationally accepted medical guidelines for the treatment of [the beneficiary’s] condition.” See QCP Booklet at 4. A prospective decision is, however, differen