Public Lands Council v. Babbitt

The question before us on this appeal is whether the Secretary of the Interior acted within his authority under the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934(TGA), 43 U.S.C. §§ 315 et seq., the Federal Lands Policy and Management Act of 1976 (FLPMA), 43 U.S.C. §§ 1701 et seq., and the Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978 (PRIA), 43 U.S.C. §§ 1901 et seq., when he promulgated new regulations governing the administration of livestock grazing on public lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). Following publication of the final rules in 1995, the Public Lands Council along with several livestock industry groups (collectively PLC) brought suit in the district court challenging the facial validity of ten of the new regulations. The district court held four of the regulations invalid and enjoined their enforcement. The four regulations concerned: (1) the use of the terms "grazing preference" and "permitted use" to denote priorities and specify grazing use for purposes of issuing grazing permits (permitted use rule); (2) ownership of title to range improvements (range improvements rule); (3) the elimination of the requirement that applicants for permits must "be engaged in the livestock business" (qualifications rule); and (4) the issuance of permits for "conservation use" in addition to permits for the grazing of livestock (conservation use rule).

The Secretary appeals the district court's order enjoining enforcement of the aforementioned regulations, asserting that the new rules do not conflict with the governing statutes and that the reviewing courts must therefore defer to the Secretary's rulemaking authority. For the reasons stated below, we reverse the district court's order holding invalid the permitted use rule, the range improvements rule, and the mandatory qualifications rule, and we affirm the district court's order holding invalid the conservation use rule.

* BACKGROUND

Our review of the challenged 1995 grazing regulations is set against the backdrop of Congress' enacted policy regarding administration of the public lands. The Secretary of the Interior, through the BLM, manages approximately 170 million acres of public rangelands throughout the western United States as guided and constrained by the TGA, FLPMA, and PRIA. We therefore begin with an overview of those statutes.

Until 1934, the federal government left unregulated the administration of millions of acres of unappropriated public lands in the western states, including Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. In response to damage to the public rangelands caused by decades of unregulated livestock grazing, Congress enacted the Taylor Grazing Act, establishing a threefold legislative goal: to regulate the occupancy and use of the federal lands, to preserve the land and its resources from injury due to overgrazing, and "to provide for the orderly use, improvement, and development of the range." 43 U.S.C. § 315a. One of the key issues the Act was intended to address was the need to stabilize the livestock industry by preserving ranchers' access to the federal lands in a manner that would guard the land against destruction. See Taylor Grazing Act, ch. 865, 48 Stat. 1269 (June 28, 1934).

In order to accomplish these purposes, Congress provided for the issuance of grazing permits under the supervision of the Secretary of the Interior, authorizing the Secretary to identify lands "chiefly valuable for grazing and raising forage crops," 43 U.S.C. § 315, to place these lands in "grazing districts," id., and to issue permits within the districts or grant leases outside the districts to "settlers, residents, and other stock owners" to graze livestock, id. §§ 315, 315b, 315m. The TGA also authorizes the Secretary to allow permittees to install range improvements on their grazing allotments and provides that new permittees must pay reasonable value as determined by the Secretary for range improvements "constructed and owned" by a prior occupant. Id. § 315c.

In addition, Congress granted the Secretary broad discretionary authority to balance the interests of those who wish to use the government's land against the need to protect the land from injury. The TGA commands the Secretary to "make such rules and regulations and establish such service, enter into such cooperative agreements, and do any and all things necessary to accomplish the purposes" of the Act. Id. § 315a. The TGA further directs the Secretary to give renewal preference to those already holding permits, and to "adequately safeguard[ ]" the grazing privileges he recognizes, "[s]o far as consistent with the purposes and provisions" of the Act. Id. § 315b.

2. The Federal Land Policy and Management Act

Enacted in 1976, FLPMA represents Congress' express recognition that in over forty years of land management under the TGA, the BLM had failed adequately to protect and enhance the federal lands. See 43 U.S.C. § 1751(b)(1) ("Congress finds that a substantial amount of the Federal range lands is deteriorating in quality...."); H.R.REP. NO. 94-1163, at 1 (1976), reprinted in 1976 U.S.C.C.A.N. 6175 ("[I]n many instances [public land laws] are obsolete and, in total, do not add up to a coherent expression of Congressional policies adequate for today's national goals."). Owing to the TGA's apparent deficiencies, FLPMA instructs the Secretary to "manage [through BLM] the public lands under principles of multiple use and sustained yield." 43 U.S.C. § 1732(a). "Multiple use" requires management of the public lands and their numerous natural resources so that they can be used for economic, recreational, and scientific purposes without the infliction of permanent damage. Id. § 1702(c). "Sustained yield" is defined as "the achievement and maintenance in perpetuity of a high-level annual or regular periodic output of the various renewable resources of the public lands consistent with multiple use." Id. § 1702(h).

In order to manage the lands in accordance with the principles of multiple use and sustained yield, FLPMA requires land use planning:

The Secretary shall, with public involvement and consistent with the terms and conditions of this Act, develop, maintain, and, when appropriate, revise land use plans which provide by tracts or areas for the use of the public lands. Land use plans shall be developed for the public lands regardless of whether such lands previously have been classified, withdrawn, or set aside, or otherwise designated for one or more uses.

Id. § 1712(a) (emphasis added). In keeping with this mandate, FLPMA contains several provisions specific to livestock grazing which chiefly provide that all grazing permits must be issued subject to terms and conditions consistent with FLPMA. Id. § 1752.

3. The Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978

Congress enacted PRIA in 1978. Among its purposes was to reaffirm "a national policy and commitment to: ... manage, maintain, and improve the condition of the public rangelands so that they become as productive as feasible for all rangeland values." 43 U.S.C. § 1901(b)(2). PRIA set forth Congressional findings that vast segments of the public rangelands remained in an unsatisfactory condition and that increased management and funding were needed to address the problem. See id. § 1901(a)(1)-(3). One of PRIA's primary effects was to implement a new grazing fee formula for domestic livestock grazing on the public rangelands. See id. § 1905; see also BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT, U.S. DEP'T OF THE INTERIOR, THE TAYLOR GRAZING ACT: FIFTY YEARS OF PROGRESS, 1934-1984, at 5 (noting Congress' failure to appropriate millions of dollars authorized by PRIA).

The 1995 grazing regulations made a number of changes to the administration of the then-existing federal grazing program.1 We address below only those regulations held invalid by the district court.

As part of the scheme for issuing grazing permits and determining grazing levels, the rangeland management rules in effect prior to 1995 employed the term "grazing preference" to mean "the total number of animal unit months [AUMs] of livestock grazing on public lands apportioned and attached to base property owned or controlled by the permittee or lessee." 43 C.F.R. § 4100.0-5 (1994). One AUM represents the amount of forage necessary to sustain one cow or horse or five sheep or goats for one month. Id. This "grazing preference" included "active use," defined as "the current authorized livestock grazing use," id., which was adjusted according to rangeland conditions and was "based upon the amount of forage available for livestock grazing established in the land use plan," id. § 4110.2-2(a), as well as "suspended use," id., which could be converted to active use should the rangeland's carrying capacity increase. The "grazing preference" was specified in all grazing permits or leases issued by the Secretary, id.; was attached to base property, id. § 4110.2-2(c); and was transferable with the base property in whole or in part upon application and approval, id. § 4110.2-3.

The 1995 regulations redefined the term "grazing preference" to mean "a superior or priority position against others for the purpose of receiving a grazing permit or lease," which is "attached to base property owned or controlled by the permittee or lessee." 43 C.F.R. § 4100.0-5 (1995). At the same time, BLM added the term "permitted use," defined as "the forage [expressed in AUMs] allocated by, or under the guidance of, an applicable land use plan for livestock grazing in an allotment under a permit or lease." Id. "Permitted use" encompasses both active and suspended use. Id. § 4110.2-2(a). Like "grazing preference" in the previous rules, "permitted use" is specified in permits as a designated amount of forage expressed in AUMs, id.; is attached to base property, id. § 4110.2-2(c); and is transferable with the base property in whole or in part upon application and approval, id. § 4110.2-3.

Prior to 1995, BLM's regulations provided that title to many range improvements constructed under cooperative agreements upon application and approval by the Secretary, including fences, wells and pipelines, was "shared by the United States and cooperator(s) in proportion to the actual amount of the respective contribution to the initial construction." 43 C.F.R. § 4120.3-2 (1994).

Under the 1995 regulations, the government prospectively asserts title to "permanent" range improvements, such as fences, wells, reservoirs, pipelines, and stock tanks, and "non-structural" improvements such as seeding, spraying, and chaining, authorized after August 21, 1995. 43 C.F.R. § 4120.3-2 (1995). Specifically, the new regulations provide that all permanent improvements will be constructed under cooperative agreements between the permittees and BLM, and that all improvements constructed under such cooperative agreements will be titled in the government. Id. § 4120.3-2(b). As under the previous scheme, the 1995 regulations provide for compensation to permittees for existing or future range improvements, requiring new permit applicants or transferees to pay the prior occupants for their "interest in the authorized improvements within the allotment as of the date of transfer." Id. § 4120.3-5.

Under the previous regulations, in addition to owning or controlling base property used in a livestock operation, permit applicants were required to "be engaged in the livestock business." 43 C.F.R. § 4110.1 (1994). The new qualifications rule eliminates this requirement. See 43 C.F.R. § 4110.1 (1995). The new rule was devised to "clarify that mortgage insurers, natural resource conservation organizations, and private parties whose primary source of income is not the livestock business, but who meet the [other criteria], are qualified for a grazing permit or lease." Department Hearings and Appellate Procedures; Cooperative Relations; Grazing Administration; Exclusive of Alaska; Final Rule, 60 Fed.Reg. 9894, 9901 (1995) (hereinafter Final Rule). The new regulations also altered the definition of "base property," see 43 C.F.R. § 4100.0-5 (1995), to "clarify that base property must be capable of serving as a base for livestock operations but it need not actually be in use for livestock production," 60 Fed.Reg. at 9901.

The 1995 regulations added "conservation use" as a permissible use of a grazing permit. See 43 C.F.R. § 4100.0-5 (1995) (defining "grazing permit" as a document that specifies "all authorized use [of public lands within a grazing district] including livestock grazing, suspended use, and conservation use"). "Conservation use" means "an activity, excluding livestock grazing, on all or a portion of an allotment" for the purpose of protecting the land and its resources, improving rangeland conditions, or enhancing resource values. Id. Conservation use may be approved for a period of up to ten years-i.e., for the entire duration of the permit. See id. § 4130.2(g)(1). According to the Secretary, conservation use will be initiated by request of the permittee and will not be forced on an unwilling permittee. See Final Rule, 60 Fed.Reg. at 9898. Allotments in conservation use will not be subject to grazing fees since no forage will be consumed by livestock. See id. BLM will not consider allowing another operator to use any resulting forage. See id.

As under the old rules, the 1995 regulations provide that BLM can temporarily suspend grazing for conservation reasons. See 43 C.F.R. §§ 4110.3-2 to -3 (1995) (describing procedures for reducing permitted use). In addition, the new regulations add the term "temporary nonuse" to describe "the authorized withholding, on an annual basis, of all or a portion of permitted livestock use" at the request of a permittee. Id. § 4100.0-5. Temporary nonuse allows a permittee to place all or part of his "permitted use" in nonuse for up to three years for "reasons including but not limited to financial conditions or annual fluctuations of livestock." Id. § 4130.2(g)(2).

Soon after the Secretary's proposed regulations took effect on August 21, 1995, PLC filed suit in the United States District Court for the District of Wyoming, challenging the facial validity of several of the new regulations. PLC later substituted a petition for review, seeking declaratory and injunctive relief on the same grounds stated in its complaint. PLC challenged most of the regulations on the grounds that the Secretary had exceeded his statutory authority, lacked a reasoned basis for departing from previous rules, or had failed to provide adequate responses to public comments. PLC also challenged two of the new regulations on constitutional grounds and asserted that the Final Environmental Impact Statement violated the National Environmental Policy Act, 42 U.S.C. §§ 4321 et seq.

On June 13, 1996, the district court entered an Order on Petition for Review, holding in favor of PLC on four of the challenged regulations. See Public Lands Council v. Department of Interior, 929 F.Supp. 1436 (D.Wyo.1996). The district court characterized the permitted use rule as ending longstanding recognition of grazing preferences adjudicated following enactment of the TGA, thereby depriving permittees of their statutory "right" to graze predictable numbers of stock. As such, the court held the permitted use rule violates the TGA's mandate that "grazing privileges recognized and acknowledged shall be adequately safeguarded." Id. at 1440-41. In addition, the district court interpreted the TGA to require that range improvements be owned by the permittees who construct them, and held that the 1995 range improvements regulation violates this requirement. See id. at 1442-43. Finally, the district court held that eliminating the requirement that permit applicants be engaged in the livestock business violates the TGA's mandate that preference be given to such persons, see id. at 1444-45; and that the Secretary exceeded his authority under the TGA and FLPMA and lacked a reasoned basis in authorizing BLM to issue "conservation use" permits, see id. at 1443-44. The district court held in favor of the government on the remaining challenges to other parts of the new regulations, and the PLC does not contest these rulings on appeal.

We review de novo a district court's decision regarding an agency action. See Santa Fe Energy Prod. Co. v. McCutcheon, 90 F.3d 409, 413 (10th Cir.1996) (standard of review of agency action identical in both district and appellate court; "[o]nce appealed, the district court's decision is afforded no particular deference").

Our role as a reviewing court addressing PLC's facial challenge to the 1995 regulations is well established. Under section 706 of the Administrative Procedures Act (APA), 5 U.S.C. § 706, we cannot set aside any agency action unless it is "arbitrary, capricious, an abuse of discretion, or otherwise not in accordance with the law," id. § 706(2)(A), or unless it is "in excess of statutory jurisdiction, authority, or limitations, or short of a statutory right." Id. § 706(2)(C). See Olenhouse v. Commodity Credit Corp., 42 F.3d 1560, 1574 (10th Cir.1994) ("[T]he essential function of judicial review is a determination of (1) whether the agency acted within the scope of its authority, (2) whether the agency complied with prescribed procedures, and (3) whether the action is otherwise arbitrary, capricious or an abuse of discretion.") (citations omitted). Moreover, because PLC has challenged the 1995 regulations on their face and seeks to enjoin their enforcement, our review is also governed by the standard applicable to facial challenges. To prevail on a facial challenge, PLC " 'must establish that no set of circumstances exists under which the [regulation] would be valid.' " Reno v. Flores, 507 U.S. 292, 301, 113 S.Ct. 1439, 123 L.Ed.2d 1 (1993) (alteration in original) (quoting United States v. Salerno, 481 U.S. 739, 745, 107 S.Ct. 2095, 95 L.Ed.2d 697 (1987)).

Our review is also guided by the principles governing judicial review of agency action set forth in Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, 467 U.S. 837, 842-43, 104 S.Ct. 2778, 81 L.Ed.2d 694 (1984).

In determining whether an administrative regulation permissibly construes the statute that an agency is charged with enforcing, our inquiry is shaped by the specificity of the Congressional enactment:

"First, always, is the question whether Congress has directly spoken to the precise question at issue. If the intent of Congress is clear, that is the end of the matter; for the court, as well as the agency, must give effect to the unambiguously expressed intent of Congress. If, however, the court determines Congress has not directly addressed the precise question at issue, the court does not simply impose its own construction on the statute, as would be necessary in the absence of an administrative interpretation. Rather, if the statute is silent or ambiguous with respect to the specific issue, the question for the court is whether the agency's answer is based on a permissible construction of the statute."

Quivira Mining Co. v. Nuclear Regulatory Comm'n, 866 F.2d 1246, 1249 (10th Cir.1989) (quoting Chevron, 467 U.S. at 842-43, 104 S.Ct. 2778).

Even under Chevron 's second step, however, "an agency's interpretation of a statute is not entitled to deference when it goes beyond the meaning that the statute can bear." MCI Telecomm. Corp. v. AT & T, 512 U.S. 218, 229, 114 S.Ct. 2223, 129 L.Ed.2d 182 (1994); see Southern Ute Indian Tribe v. Amoco Prod. Co., 119 F.3d 816, 835 (10th Cir.1997) ("Even under the deference mandated by Chevron, 'legislative regulations are [not] given controlling weight [if] they are arbitrary, capricious, or manifestly contrary to the statute.' ") (alterations in original) (quoting Chevron, 467 U.S. at 844, 104 S.Ct. 2778), aff'd en banc on other grounds, 151 F.3d 1251 (10th Cir.1998). "[N]o deference is warranted if the interpretation is inconsistent with the legislative intent reflected in the language and structure of the statute or if there are other compelling indications that it is wrong." Mountain Side Mobile Estates Partnership v. Secretary of Housing & Urban Dev., 56 F.3d 1243, 1248 (10th Cir.1995) (citation omitted).

With this standard of review in mind, we turn to an examination of the regulations invalidated by the district court. In doing so, we note at the outset that Congress and the various Secretaries of the Interior have developed over the last sixty years a somewhat complicated regulatory scheme governing the federal lands. Yet this complicated scheme stems from a simple premise: the lands at issue here belong to the United States government; the issuance of grazing permits "shall not create any right, title, interest, or estate in or to the lands." 43 U.S.C. § 315b. Congress passed the aforementioned statutes governing when and how private individuals will be allowed to use those lands and charged the Secretary of the Interior with enforcing its intentions. We must therefore ask and answer the simple question whether the Secretary's regulations are consistent with the authority Congress has given him, or whether they conflict with Congress' unambiguous commands.

Upon examining the relevant statutes, regulations, and the record, we are persuaded the permitted use rule comports with the authority granted the Secretary of the Interior under the TGA and FLPMA and demands our deference under Chevron.

In invalidating the permitted use rule, the district court held that the Secretary's decision to change the definition of "grazing preference" and to add the concept of "permitted use," whereby the terms and conditions specified in all grazing permits are determined in accordance with land use plans, ended the prior practice of "recognizing" the grazing preferences allocated following the TGA's passage in 1934. According to the district court, this failure to recognize the original grazing adjudications eliminated an important "right" granted by the TGA--the right to graze predictable numbers of stock from permit to permit. In eliminating this "right," the Secretary necessarily failed to "adequately safeguard[ ]" it as required by the TGA. The dissent adopts this characterization of the TGA and the existing regulations. An examination of the controlling statutes in light of the relevant regulations developed over the years to implement them, however, reveals that the permitted use rule neither conflicts with an unambiguous statutory command nor eliminates any long-recognized right accorded permittees to graze predictable numbers of stock.

To place the 1995 permitted use rule in context, and to respond to the dissent's erroneous characterization of the regulatory scheme that obtained under the TGA and FLPMA prior to 1995, we begin with a discussion of earlier versions of BLM's regulations governing issuance of grazing permits. We follow with an analysis of the changes posed by the permitted use rule. We then explain how a close reading of the statutory language of the TGA and FLPMA mandates our ultimate conclusion that the Secretary of the Interior acted within his authority in issuing the permitted use rule.

After enactment of the TGA in 1934, the Secretary of the Interior began the process of establishing grazing districts, issuing permits, and granting leases. At the time of the TGA's passage, the number of qualifying applicants far exceeded the amount of grazing land available to accommodate them. Therefore, the Department of the Interior (DOI) instituted a detailed adjudication process, guided by a set of priorities articulated in section three of the TGA, to determine which applicants would receive grazing permits. First priority in the issuance of permits went to applicants who owned land or water, i.e., "base property," in or near a grazing district, who were dependent on the public lands for grazing, who had used their land or water for livestock operations in connection with the public lands in the five years preceding the TGA's enactment, and whose land or water was situated so as to require the use of public rangeland for "economic" livestock operations. See DIVISION OF GRAZING, U.S. DEP'T OF THE INTERIOR, FEDERAL RANGE CODE, §§ 2(g)-(h), 4(a), 6(b)(1) (1938). Once the Secretary issued a favorable grazing decision regarding an individual applicant, the applicant received a ten-year permit which specified the maximum number of livestock, measured in AUMs, that the permittee was entitled to place in a grazing district.

As discussed above, Congress enacted FLPMA in 1976 to address the continued deterioration of federal rangelands that was occurring in spite of the Taylor Grazing Act. "The Federal Land Policy & Management Act of 1976 ... was a comprehensive statement of the public policy of the United States, declaring that public lands be systematically inventoried and subjected to a land use planning process which would enable them to be managed by the Secretary of the Interior...." Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. v. Hodel, 618 F.Supp. 848, 857 (E.D.Cal.1985). In 1978, the Secretary issued new regulations under FLPMA governing grazing administration, which effected significant changes in the process for issuing grazing permits. See Bruce M. Pendery, Reforming Livestock Grazing on the Public Domain: Ecosystem Management-Based Standards & Guidelines Blaze a New Path for Range Management, 27 ENVTL. L. 513, 556 (1997) ("Over the years, the Range Code was 'amended as the occasion arose.' But when FLPMA was enacted in 1976, sweeping revisions of the regulations were made.") (quoting George C. Coggins & Margaret Lindberg-Johnson, The Law of Public Rangeland Management II: The Commons & The Taylor Act, 13 ENVTL. L. 1, 69 (1982) (footnote omitted)). At the outset, and in recognition of the gravity of the changes, the Secretary made provisions for the livestock operators already authorized to use the federal lands:

Serious concern was expressed in several of the comments about how these grazing regulations will affect the livestock operators now authorized to graze on the public lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management. Livestock operators with a grazing license, permit, or lease will be recognized as having a preference for continued grazing use on these lands. There [sic] adjudicated grazing use, their base properties, and their areas of use (allotments) will be recognized under these grazing regulations.

43 Fed.Reg. 29,058 (July 5, 1978).

While the previously adjudicated grazing uses were to be recognized for the length of existing permits, "future adjudications of grazing use would be based on criteria vastly different than those provided in the Federal Range Code." Delmer & Jo McLean v. Bureau of Land Management, 133 IBLA 225, 233 (Aug. 3, 1995). The 1978 regulations specified that "[l]ivestock grazing permits and leases shall contain terms and conditions necessary to achieve the management objectives for the public lands ... identified in land use plans." 43 C.F.R. § 4120.2 (1978) (emphasis added). Grazing permits or leases issued under the regulations were subject to the following mandatory terms and conditions:

(a) The authorized officer shall specify the kind and number of livestock, the period(s) of use, the allotment(s) to be used, and the amount of use, in animal unit months, that can be made in every grazing permit or lease. The authorized livestock grazing use shall not exceed the livestock grazing capacity and shall be limited or excluded to the extent necessary to achieve the objectives established for the allotment.

(b) If it has been determined that allotment management plans are not necessary, or if allotment management plans have not been implemented where they are needed, the authorized officer shall incorporate terms and conditions under this section in grazing permits or leases. The authorized officer shall modify these terms and conditions if the condition of the range requires modification of grazing use and may cancel grazing permits or grazing leases and grazing preferences as conditions warrant. These modifications and cancellations may be made at any time and shall be put into full force and effect on the date specified by the authorized officer.

Id. § 4120.2-1 (emphasis added). The regulations made cancellation of grazing preferences mandatory when necessary to maintain compliance with land use plans: "When authorized grazing use exceeds the amount of forage available ... or where reduced grazing is necessary to facilitate achieving the objectives in the land use plans, grazing permits or grazing leases and grazing preferences shall be canceled in whole or in part." Id. § 4110.3-2(b) (emphasis added).

Grazing permits were offered "for a term not to exceed 10 years to qualified applicants." Id. § 4130.2(a). Permits were to "include appropriate terms and conditions," id. § 4130.2(b), were to be "modified or canceled in accordance with land use planning decisions," id. § 4130.2(d)(3), and were to be subject to annual review "and modification of terms and conditions as appropriate," id. § 4130.2(d)(4). Most significant for purposes of this appeal, the permit renewal process provided as follows: "Permittees or lessees holding expiring grazing permits or leases shall be given first priority for receipt of new permits or leases if: ... [t]he permittee or lessee accepts the terms and conditions to be included in the new permit or lease by the authorized officer." Id. § 4130.2(e)(3) (emphasis added).

According to the plain language of the regulation, the renewal of permits was subject to a preference right in the sense that permit holders had priority to renew their permits. However, it is equally clear that new terms and conditions--including the numbers of stock permitted to graze--could be specified by the authorizing officer in such new permits and that any terms and conditions specified were required to be in accord with applicable land use plans. Nowhere in the 1978 regulations was there any requirement, or even the suggestion, that the authorizing officer must recognize or refer to the original grazing adjudications, or even the most recent adjudications, in issuing new permits.

3. The post-1978 regulations.

As the drafters of FLPMA envisioned, managing the federal lands through land use planning is a dynamic process that has often led the various Secretaries of Interior to alter the governing regulations. See H.R. REP. NO . 94-1163, at 5 (1976), reprinted in 1976 U.S.C.C.A.N. 6175, 6179 (the BLM and the Forest Service "treat land use planning as dynamic and subject to change with changing conditions and values"). By 1994, many aspects of the original 1978 regulations had been altered, effectively softening the requirement that grazing preferences must at all times be consistent with land use plans. The 1978 regulations specified that terms and conditions should be modified or canceled "if the condition of the range requires modification of grazing use ... at any time." 43 C.F.R. 4120.2-1(b) (1978). However, the regulations in effect in 1994 specified that the authorized officer "may make changes," which were required to be "supported by monitoring, as evidenced by rangeland studies conducted over time, unless the change is either specified in an applicable land use plan or necessary to manage, maintain or improve rangeland productivity." 43 C.F.R. § 4110.3 (1994) (emphasis added). Whereas the 1978 regulations required livestock grazing permits to contain terms and conditions "identified in land use plans," 43 C.F.R. § 4120.2 (1978), the 1994 version merely stated: "Livestock grazing permits and leases shall contain terms and conditions necessary to achieve the management objectives for the public lands and other lands under Bureau of Land Management administration," 43 C.F.R. § 4130.6 (1994).

Yet despite the changes from 1978, the primacy of the land use plans mandated by FLPMA remained apparent in the fact that changes specified in land use plans did not require other justification. Most significantly, the provisions for permit renewal remained exactly the same as they had been in 1978, that is, permits were renewable so long as "the permittee or lessee accepts the terms and conditions to be included by the authorized officer in the new permit or lease." Id. § 4130.2. Once again, the regulations effective in 1994 offer no hint that recognition of or reference to the original grazing adjudications was in any way required. The authorized officer was clearly empowered to specify the terms and conditions--including the numbers of stock and seasons of use--upon the renewal of grazing permits in accordance with land use plans.

As explained above, the 1995 regulations challenged here divided the concept previously known as the "grazing preference" into two parts, defining "preference" as a priority position against others for purposes of permit renewal and defining "permitted use" as "the forage allocated by, or under the guidance of, an applicable land use plan for livestock grazing in an allotment und