Patricia Bragg James W. Weekley Sibby R. Weekley West Virginia Highlands Conservancy Carlos Gore Linda Gore Cheryl Price Jerry Methena, and Tommy Moore Victoria Moore v. West Virginia Coal Associationwest Virginia Mining and Reclamation Association, Intervenors/defendantsappellants, and Dana Robertson, Colonel, District Engineer, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District Joe N. Ballard, Lieutenant General, Chief of Engineers and Commander of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Michael D. Gheen, Chief to the Regulatory Branch, Operations and Readiness Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District Michael C. Castle, Director, West Virginia Division of Environmental Protection, and Hobet Mining, Incorporated Catenary Coal Company Mingologan Coal Company Western Pocahontas Properties Limited Partnership National Council of Coal Lessors, Incorporated International Union, United Mine Workers of America, Intervenors/defendants. National Mining Association Aei Resources, Inc. Washington Legal Foundation Allied Educational Foundation Interstate Mining Compact Commission Commonwealth of Virginia Friends of the Earth Kentucky Resources Council, Inc., Amici Curiae. Patricia Bragg James W. Weekley Sibby R. Weekley West Virginia Highlands Conservancy Carlos Gore Linda Gore Cheryl Price Jerry Methena, and Tommy Moore Victoria Moore v. Western Pocahontas Properties Limited Partnership National Council of Coal Lessors, Incorporated, Intervenors/defendantsappellants, and Dana Robertson, Colonel, District Engineer, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District Joe N. Ballard, Lieutenant General, Chief of Engineers and Commander of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Michael D. Gheen, Chief of the Regulatory Branch, Operations and Readiness Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District Michael C. Castle, Director, West Virginia Division of Environmental Protection, and West Virginia Coal Association West Virginia Mining and Reclamation Association Hobet Mining, Incorporated Catenary Coal Company Mingo-Logan Coal Company International Union, United Mine Workers of America, Intervenors/defendants. National Mining Association Aei Resources, Inc. Washington Legal Foundation Allied Educational Foundation Interstate Mining Compact Commission Commonwealth of Virginia Friends of the Earth Kentucky Resources Council, Inc., Amici Curiae. Patricia Bragg James w.weekley Sibby R. Weekley West Virginia Highlands Conservancy Carlos Gore Linda Gore Cheryl Price Jerry Methena, and Tommy Moore Victoria Moore v. Michael C. Castle, Director, West Virginia Division of Environmental Protection, and Dana Robertson, Colonel, District Engineer, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District Joe N. Ballard, Lieutenant General, Chief of Engineers and Commander of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Michael D. Gheen, Chief of the Regulatory Branch, Operations and Readiness Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District, and West Virginia Coal Association West Virginia Mining and Reclamation Association Hobet Mining, Incorporated Catenary Coal Company Mingo-Logan Coal Company Western Pocahontas Properties Limited Partnership National Council of Coal Lessors, Incorporated International Union, United Mine Workers of America, Intervenors/defendants. National Mining Association Aei Resources, Inc. Washington Legal Foundation Allied Educational Foundation Interstate Mining Compact Commission Commonwealth of Virginia Friends of the Earth Kentucky Resources Council, Inc., Amici Curiae. Patricia Bragg James W. Weekley Sibby R. Weekley West Virginia Highlands Conservancy Carlos Gore Linda Gore Cheryl Price Jerry Methena, and Tommy Moore Victoria Moore v. International Union, United Mine Workers of America, Intervenor/defendantappellant, and Dana Robertson, Colonel, District Engineer, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District Joe N. Ballard, Lieutenant General, Chief of Engineers and Commander of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Michael D. Gheen, Chief of the Regulatory Branch, Operations and Readiness Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District Michael C. Castle, Director, West Virginia Division of Environmental Protection, and West Virginia Coal Association West Virginia Mining and Reclamation Association Hobet Mining, Incorporated Catenary Coal Company Mingo-Logan Coal Company Western Pocahontas Properties Limited Partnership National Council of Coal Lessors, Incorporated, Intervenors/defendants. National Mining Association Aei Resources, Inc. Washington Legal Foundation Allied Educational Foundation Interstate Mining Compact Commission Commonwealth of Virginia Friends of the Earth Kentucky Resources Council, Inc., Amici Curiae. Patricia Bragg James W. Weekley Sibby R. Weekley West Virginia Highlands Conservancy Carlos Gore Linda Gore Cheryl Price Jerry Methena, and Tommy Moore Victoria Moore v. Hobet Mining, Incorporated Catenary Coal Company Mingologan Coal Company, Intervenors/defendants-Appellants, and Dana Robertson, Colonel, District Engineer, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District Joe N. Ballard, Lieutenant General, Chief of Engineers and Commander of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Michael D. Gheen, Chief of the Regulatory Branch, Operations and Readiness Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District Michael C. Castle, Director, West Virginia Division of Environmental Protection, and West Virginia Coal Association West Virginia Mining and Reclamation Association Western Pocahontas Properties Limited Partnership National Council of Coal Lessors, Incorporated International Union, United Mine Workers of America, Intervenors/defendants. National Mining Association Aei Resources, Inc. Washington Legal Foundation Allied Educational Foundation Interstate Mining Compact Commission Commonwealth of Virginiafriends of the Earth Kentucky Resources Council, Inc., Amici Curiae. Patricia Bragg James W. Weekley Sibby R. Weekley West Virginia Highlands Conservancy Carlos Gore Linda Gore Cheryl Price Jerry Methena, and Tommy Moore Victoria Moore v. Dana Robertson, Colonel, District Engineer, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District Joe N. Ballard, Lieutenant General,chief of Engineers and Commander of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Michael D. Gheen, Chief of the Regulatory Branch, Operations and Readiness division,u.s. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District, and Michael C. Castle, Director, West Virginia Division of Environmental Protection, and West Virginia Coal Association West Virginia Mining and Reclamation Association Hobet Mining, Incorporated Catenary Coal Company Mingo-Logan Coal Company Western Pocahontas Properties Limited Partnership National Council of Coal Lessors, Incorporated International Union, United Mine Workers of America, Intervenors/defendants. National Mining Association Aei Resources, Inc. Washington Legal Foundation Allied Educational Foundation Interstate Mining Compact Commission Commonwealth of Virginia Friends of the Earth Kentucky Resources Council, Inc., Amici Curiae. Patricia Bragg James W. Weekley Sibby R. Weekley West Virginia Highlands Conservancy Carlos Gore Linda Gore Cheryl Price Jerry Methena, and Tommy Moore Victoria Moore v. West Virginia Coal Association West Virginia Mining and Reclamation Association, Intervenors/defendantsappellants v. Michael C. Castle, Director, West Virginia Division of Environmental Protection, and Dana Robertson, Colonel, District Engineer, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District Joe N. Ballard, Lieutenant General, Chief of Engineers and Commander of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Michael D. Gheen, Chief of the Regulatory Branch, Operations and Readiness Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District, and Hobet Mining, Incorporated Catenary Coal Company Mingologan Coal Company Western Pocahontas Properties Limited Partnership National Council of Coal Lessors, Incorporated International Union, United Mine Workers of America, Intervenors/defendants. National Mining Association Aei Resources, Inc. Washington Legal Foundation Allied Educational Foundation Interstate Mining Compact Commission Commonwealth of Virginia Friends of the Earth Kentucky Resources Council, Inc., Amici Curiae. Patricia Bragg James W. Weekley Sibby R. Weekley West Virginia Highlands Conservancy Carlos Gore Linda Gore Cheryl Price Jerry Methena, and Tommy Moore Victoria Moore v. Hobet Mining, Incorporated Catenary Coal Company Mingologan Coal Company, Intervenors/defendants-Appellants v. Michael C. Castle, Director, West Virginia Division of Environmental Protection, and Dana Robertson, Colonel, District Engineer, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District Joe N. Ballard, Lieutenant General, Chief of Engineers and Commander of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Michael D. Gheen, Chief of the Regulatory Branch, Operations and Readiness Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District, and West Virginia Coal Association West Virginia Mining and Reclamation Association Western Pocahontas Properties Limited Partnership National Council of Coal Lessors, Incorporated International Union, United Mine Workers of America, Intervenors/defendants. National Mining Association Aei Resources, Inc. Washington Legal Foundation Allied Educational Foundation Interstate Mining Compact Commission Commonwealth of Virginia Friends of the Earth Kentucky Resources Council, Inc., Amici Curiae

This case, which is of great importance to the citizens of West Virginia, was commenced by some of its citizens and an environmental group against the Director of the West Virginia Division of Environmental Protection to challenge his issuance of permits for mountaintop-removal coal mining in the State. The complaint alleged that the Director "has routinely approved surface coal mining permits which decapitate the State's mountains and dump the resulting waste in nearby valleys, burying hundreds of miles of headwaters of West Virginia's streams," and it requested an injunction prohibiting the further issuance of such permits.

The public concern over this issue is demonstrated by the remarkably broad spectrum of interests represented in these proceedings, as well as by their unusual alliances, in both the political and legal arenas. On one side of the dispute are plaintiffs, consisting of a group of private citizens and environmental groups who oppose West Virginia's current permitting practices, and they enjoy the support of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. On the other side are the coal mining companies, who are allied with the United Mine Workers of America and the West Virginia State political establishment, all of whom favor current mining practices. And, until this litigation was commenced, these practices had the approval of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, although the United States' interests are now aligned with the position taken by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Following extensive and careful consideration of motions for summary judgment on the substantive issues presented and cross-motions to dismiss, the district court denied the motions to dismiss, found that West Virginia's approval of mountaintop mining practices violated both federal and State law, and enjoined the State from issuing further permits that authorize dumping of mountain rock within 100 feet of intermittent and perennial streams.

Because we conclude that the doctrine of sovereign immunity bars the citizens from bringing their claims against an official of West Virginia in federal court, we vacate the district court's injunction and remand with instructions to dismiss the citizens' complaint without prejudice so that they may present their claims in the proper forum. We affirm, however, the district court's earlier consent decree approving a settlement of some of the claims asserted. The reasons for our rulings follow.

* Mountaintop-removal coal mining, while not new, only became widespread in West Virginia in the 1990s. Under this method, to reach horizontal seams of coal layered in mountains, the mountaintop rock above the seam is removed and placed in adjacent valleys; the coal is extracted; and the removed rock is then replaced in an effort to achieve the original contour of the mountain. But because rock taken from its natural state and broken up naturally"swells," perhaps by as much as 15 to 25%, the excess rock not returned to the mountain -the "overburden" -remains in the valleys, creating "valley fills." Many valley fills bury intermittent and perennial streams and drainage areas that are near the mountaintop. Over the years, the West Virginia Director of Environmental Protection (the"Director" or "State Director"), as well as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, has approved this method of coal mining in West Virginia.

The disruption to the immediate environment created by mountaintop mining is considerable and has provoked sharp differences of opinion between environmentalists and industry players. See, e.g., Penny Loeb, Shear Madness, U.S. News & World Rept., Aug. 11, 1997. As Loeb reported these differences of opinion, environmentalists decry the "startling" change in the topography, which leaves the land more subject to floods, results in the pollution of streams and rivers, and has an "incalculable" impact on wildlife. The environmentalists also criticize the mining process itself, which cracks foundations of nearby houses, causes fires, creates dust and noise, and disrupts private wells. The coal companies concede that the process changes the landscape, but note on the positive side that land is reclaimed, that grass, small shrubs, and trees are planted, and that waterfowl ponds are added. Moreover, the companies observe that mining is critical to the West Virginia economy and creates high-paying jobs in the State.

In July 1998, Patricia Bragg, along with eight other West Virginia citizens and the West Virginia Highlands Conservancy (collectively "Bragg"), commenced this action against officials of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the State Director. Bragg alleged that the State Director, in granting surface coal mining permits, "engaged in an ongoing pattern and practice of violating his non-discretionary duties under the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act [of 1977, 30 U.S.C. S 1201 et seq.] and the West Virginia state program approved under that statute." More particularly, she alleged that the Director consistently issued permits to mining operations, without making requisite findings, that (1) authorized valley fills, (2) failed to assure the restoration of original mountain contours, and (3) violated other environmental protection laws. She asserted that the Director violated his federaland State-law duty to "withhold approval of permit applications that are not complete and accurate and in compliance with all requirements of the state program." She also alleged that the Corps of Engineers breached its duties under federal law.

The Director moved to dismiss the complaint, asserting that Bragg's claims were barred by the Eleventh Amendment and that the court, in any case, lacked subject matter jurisdiction. He argued that although only injunctive relief and declaratory judgments against him in his official capacity were sought, the Ex parte Young exception to Eleventh Amendment immunity did not apply because Bragg's claims arose under State law. The district court disagreed and permitted Bragg's suit to proceed against the Director.

All but two counts of the complaint were settled,1 and the court resolved Counts 2 and 3 on motions for summary judgment. Both of these counts addressed a West Virginia regulation, enacted to conform with a federal regulation, that established 100-foot "buffer zones" around "perennial" and "intermittent" streams, within which surface mining activities may not disturb the land, unless the State agency "specifically authorizes" such activities after making certain findings. W. Va. Code St. R. tit. 38 S 2-5.2; see also 30 C.F.R. S 816.57 (the federal counterpart).2 Count 2 alleged that the Director engaged in a pattern and practice of approving mountaintop removal operations without even attempting to make the required findings, and Count 3 alleged that because valley fills inherently have an adverse effect upon stream ecology and cause violations of water quality standards, the findings required by the State regulation could never be made, at least not accurately, for valley fill permits. In entering summary judgment in favor of Bragg, the district court ruled (1) that "the Director has a nondiscretionary duty to make the findings required under the buffer zone rule before authorizing any incursions, including valley fills, within one hundred feet of an intermittent or perennial stream," Bragg v. Robertson, 72 F. Supp. 2d 642, 661 (S.D. W. Va. 1999); and (2) that "the Director has a nondiscretionary duty under the buffer zone rule to deny variances for valley fills in intermittent and perennial streams because they necessarily adversely affect stream flow, stream gradient, fish migration, related environmental values, water quality and quantity, and violate state and federal water quality standards," id. at 663. Based on these rulings, the court enjoined the Director "from approving any further surface mining permits under current law that would authorize placement of excess spoil in intermittent and perennial streams for the primary purpose of waste disposal." Id. The district court stayed its injunction, however, pending appeal to this court. See Bragg v. Robertson , 190 F.R.D. 194, 196 (S.D. W. Va. 1999).

The State Director appealed, challenging not only the district court's substantive rulings on Counts 2 and 3, but also its rulings that the Eleventh Amendment did not bar this suit against him and that the federal court had jurisdiction to consider Bragg's claims. Coal mining companies and coal associations, that had intervened in the case, also appealed, again contesting the district court's substantive rulings on Counts 2 and 3 and challenging the district court's jurisdiction both to enter the injunction and to enter the February 17, 2000 consent decree approving the settlement of the other claims against the Director. Finally, the United States appealed, challenging the breadth of the district court's injunction.

The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 ("SMCRA") was enacted to strike a balance between the nation's interests in protecting the environment from the adverse effects of surface coal mining and in assuring the coal supply essential to the nation's energy requirements. See 30 U.S.C.S 1202(a), (d), (f); see also Hodel v. Va. Mining & Reclamation Ass'n, 452 U.S. 264, 268-69 (1981). The Act accomplishes these purposes through a "cooperative federalism," in which responsibility for the regulation of surface coal mining in the United States is shared between the U.S. Secretary of the Interior and State regulatory authorities. See H.R. Rep. No. 95218, at 57 (1977) (hereinafter "Legislative History"), reprinted in 1977 U.S.C.C.A.N. 593, 595. Under this scheme, Congress established in SMCRA "minimum national standards" for regulating surface coal mining and encouraged the States, through an offer of exclusive regulatory jurisdiction, to enact their own laws incorporating these minimum standards, as well as any more stringent, but not inconsistent, standards that they might choose. See Legislative History, at 167, reprinted in 1977 U.S.C.C.A.N. at 698; 30 U.S.C. S 1255(b).

To implement this cooperative federalism, SMCRA directs the U.S. Secretary of the Interior to develop a "federal program" of regulation that embodies the minimum national standards and to consider for approval any "State programs" that are submitted to it for approval. To obtain approval of its program, a State must pass a law that provides for the minimum national standards established as "requirements" in SMCRA and must also demonstrate that it has the capability of enforcing its law. See 30 U.S.C. S 1253(a). Once the Secretary is satisfied that a State program meets these requirements and approves the program, the State's laws and regulations implementing the program become operative for the regulation of surface coal mining, and the State officials administer the program, see id. S 1252(e), giving the State "exclusive jurisdiction over the regulation of surface coal mining" within its borders, id. S 1253(a). If, however, a State fails to submit a program for approval, or a program that it submits is not approved, or approval of a State's program is withdrawn because of ineffective enforcement, then the federal program becomes applicable for the State, and the Secretary becomes vested with "exclusive jurisdiction for the regulation and control of surface coal mining and reclamation operations taking place[in the] State." Id. S 1254(a); see also Legislative History, at 85-86, reprinted in 1977 U.S.C.C.A.N. at 622.

Thus, SMCRA provides for either State regulation of surface coal mining within its borders or federal regulation, but not both. The Act expressly provides that one or the other is exclusive, see 30 U.S.C. SS 1253(a), 1254(a), with the exception that an approved State program is always subject to revocation when a State fails to enforce it, see id. SS 1253(a); 1271(b). Federal oversight of an approved State program is provided by the Secretary's obligation to inspect and monitor the operations of State programs. See id . SS 1267, 1271. Only if an approved State program is revoked, as provided inS 1271, however, does the federal program become the operative regulation for surface coal mining in any State that has previously had its program approved. See id. SS 1254(a), 1271.

In sum, because the regulation is mutually exclusive, either federal law or State law regulates coal mining activity in a State, but not both simultaneously. Thus, after a State enacts statutes and regulations that are approved by the Secretary, these statutes and regulations become operative, and the federal law and regulations, while continuing to provide the "blueprint" against which to evaluate the State's program, "drop out" as operative provisions. They are reengaged only following the instigation of a S 1271 enforcement proceeding by the Secretary of the Interior.

In the case before us, West Virginia submitted a program to the Secretary in 1980 for approval, and the Secretary approved the program in 1981, thus granting West Virginia "primacy" status -a status under which its law exclusively regulates coal mining in the State. See 30 C.F.R. S 948.10 (noting the Secretary's approval of West Virginia's plan). As part of this program, the West Virginia legislature enacted its own statute entitled the "Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Act" (the "West Virginia Coal Mining Act"). See W. Va. Code S 22-3-1 et seq. As amended, the West Virginia Coal Mining Act vests the Director of the State Division of Environmental Protection with the authority to administer the Act and otherwise to provide for the regulation of surface coal mining within the State. See W. Va. Code S 22-3-4. The West Virginia Act sets out minimum performance standards that mirror those found in SMCRA, and the State Director has exercised his statutorily granted power to promulgate State regulations that parallel those issued by the Secretary of the Interior pursuant to the federal Act. See 38 W. Va. Code St. R. S 2-1 et seq. Thus, since the Secretary's approval of the West Virginia program in 1981, the Director has served as the exclusive permitting authority in the State, and West Virginia has maintained "exclusive jurisdiction," with certain exceptions inherent in the federal oversight provisions, over surface mining regulation within its borders.

Bragg brought this action against the State Director under the "citizen suit" provision of SMCRA, which provides in relevant part:[A]ny person having an interest which is or may be adversely affected may commence a civil action on his own behalf to compel compliance with this chapter -* * *

(2) against the Secretary or the appropriate State regulatory authority to the extent permitted by the eleventh amendment to the Constitution where there is alleged a failure of the Secretary or the appropriate State regulatory authority to perform any act or duty under this chapter which is not discretionary with the Secretary or with the appropriate State regulatory authority.

The district courts shall have jurisdiction, without regard to the amount in controversy or the citizenship of the parties.

30 U.S.C. S 1270(a)(2).

The State Director asserted below and now contends that, as an official of West Virginia who has been sued in his official capacity, he is immune from suit in federal court under the doctrine of sovereign immunity guaranteed by the Eleventh Amendment. In response to the district court's reliance on Ex parte Young, 209 U.S. 123 (1908), to overcome the Eleventh Amendment bar, the Director argues that the Ex parte Young exception does not apply because the issues in this case involve enforcement of West Virginia law, not federal law. Acknowledging that Bragg nominally asserts violations of both federal and State law, the Director argues that Bragg actually seeks to compel the Director "to comply with the approved West Virginia surface mining program" because once a State program is approved by the Secretary of the Interior, it is State law, not federal law, that governs. Thus, the Director concludes that the Ex parte Young exception for ongoing federal violations does not apply; rather, Pennhurst State School & Hospital v. Halderman, 465 U.S. 89 (1984), controls. In Pennhurst, the Supreme Court held the Ex parte Young doctrine inapplicable to a suit brought against a State official to compel his compliance with State law. See 465 U.S. at 106.3

Bragg, on the other hand, contends that the Ex parte Young exception permits suit against the State Director. She argues first that Congress, by enacting 30 U.S.C. S 1270(a)(2),"authorized citizens to bring Ex parte Young suits against State officials who have the responsibility to comply with SMCRA and federally-approved State programs under that Act." Second, she asserts that her suit seeks to enforce federal, not State, law because (1) States with federally approved programs are still bound by federal statutory mandates that govern their activities, and (2) the buffer zone regulation promulgated by West Virginia is federal law. Finally, she maintains that West Virginia, in choosing "to submit a state program for federal approval, accept[ed] the federal government's invitation to act as regulators of surface coal mining in the state." She asserts that West Virginia, by participating in the federal program, agreed to submit to federal jurisdiction under 30 U.S.C. S 1270(a)(2), thereby waiving its Eleventh Amendment immunity.

The district court ruled that SMCRA's grant to citizens to bring suits against State regulatory authorities "to the extent permitted by the eleventh amendment," 30 U.S.C. S 1270(a)(2), amounts to an "implicit authorization" to citizens to bring Ex parte Young actions against State officials, and cited Natural Resources Defense Council v. California Department of Transportation, 96 F.3d 420, 423-24 (9th Cir. 1996), for support. The court also rejected the Director's argument that State law, not federal law, is being enforced because the State law is incorporated into federal law, and cited Arkansas v. Oklahoma, 503 U.S. 91, 110 (1992), for support. See Bragg v. Robertson, No. 2:98-0636, slip op. at 8 (S.D. W. Va. Oct. 9, 1998).

We begin our analysis by noting that although the literal text of the Eleventh Amendment appears to restrict only Article III diversity jurisdiction, we have come to understand that the Amendment confirms principles of State sovereign immunity that are embedded in the constitutional structure and thus that it bars "citizens from bringing suits in federal court against their own states." Litman v. George Mason Univ., 186 F.3d 544, 549 (4th Cir. 1999) (citing Hans v. Louisiana, 134 U.S. 1 (1890)); see also Alden v. Maine, 527 U.S. 706, 712 (1999) (holding that sovereign immunity also immunizes a State from private lawsuits brought in its own courts under federal law). And when, as in this case, a suit is brought only against State officials, the suit is barred "when `the State is the real, substantial party in interest.'" Pennhurst, 465 U.S. at 101 (quoting Ford Motor Co. v. Dep't of Treasury of Ind., 323 U.S. 459, 464 (1945)). This limit on federal judicial power is an essential element of the constitutional design, as immunity "accords the States the respect owed them as members of the federation," Puerto Rico Aqueduct & Sewer Auth. v. Metcalf & Eddie, Inc., 506 U.S. 139, 146 (1993), and protects the States' ability "to govern in accordance with the will of their citizens," Alden, 527 U.S. at 751.

A State's immunity to suit in federal court is subject to well established and important exceptions, however. See S.C. State Ports Auth. v. Fed. Maritime Comm'n, No. 00-1481, 243 F.3d 165, (4th Cir. Mar. 12, 2001) (enumerating six exceptions to Eleventh Amendment immunity). Sovereign immunity does not, for example, prevent the United States itself from bringing suit against an unconsenting State to ensure compliance with federal law. See United States v. Texas, 143 U.S. 621, 644-45 (1892). Moreover, Congress may abrogate a State's immunity pursuant to its enforcement power under S 5 of the Fourteenth Amendment. See Seminole Tribe, 517 U.S. at 59; Fla. Prepaid Post Secondary Educ. Expense Bd. v. Coll. Sav. Bank, 527 U.S. 627, 647, 144 L.Ed.2d 575 (1999) (holding that the Patent Remedy Act was not a S 5 enactment). A State, of course, may waive its immunity by "consenting to be sued in federal court." Litman , 186 F.3d at 550 (citing Coll. Sav. Bank v. Fla. Prepaid Postsecondary Educ. Expense Bd., 527 U.S. 666, 675 (1999)); see also Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe, 521 U.S. 261, 267 (1997); Atascadero State Hosp. v. Scanlon, 473 U.S. 234, 238 (1985). And, as at issue here, the Eleventh Amendment does not preclude private individuals from bringing suit against State officials for prospective injunctive or declaratory relief designed to remedy ongoing violations of federal law. See Ex parte Young, 209 U.S. 123 (1908); DeBauche v. Trani, 191 F.3d 499, 505 (4th Cir. 1999) (citing Green v. Mansour, 474 U.S. 64, 68 (1985)).

Bragg concedes that her suit is, in reality, directed toward the State of West Virginia and therefore that Eleventh Amendment jurisprudence is relevant. She maintains, however, that her suit is authorized by Ex parte Young, or, alternatively, that West Virginia has waived its immunity by participating in the federal program. We address each of these arguments in turn.

* Although the Ex parte Young exception to the Eleventh Amendment is well established, its precise contours are not. See Pennhurst, 465 U.S. at 101-02; see also Coeur d'Alene Tribe , 521 U.S. 270-80 (opinion of Kennedy, J., joined by Rehnquist, C.J.) (urging a "caseby-case approach" to the application of Ex parte Young). At the very least, however, the Ex parte Young doctrine provides that "a federal court has jurisdiction over a suit against a state officer to enjoin official actions that violate federal law, even if the State itself is immune from suit under the Eleventh Amendment." Id . at 288 (O'Connor, J., concurring in part and concurring in the judgment); see also Green, 474 U.S. at 68; Pennhurst, 465 U.S. at 102-03. The exception is premised upon the notion, sometimes called a "fiction," see, e.g., Coeur d'Alene Tribe, 521 U.S. at 281, that when a State officer violates federal law, he is stripped of his official character, thus losing the "cloak" of State immunity. See id. at 288 (O'Connor, J., concurring in part and concurring in the judgment); Pennhurst, 465 U.S. at 102; Ex parte Young, 209 U.S. at 159-60. Even though "the State itself will have a continuing interest in the litigation whenever State policies or procedures are at stake," Coeur d'Alene Tribe, 521 U.S. at 269; see also Gr. N. Life Ins. Co. v. Read , 322 U.S. 47, 51 (1944), a court decree enjoining a State officer from committing future violations of federal law generally will not upset the careful federal balance established by the Constitution and confirmed by the Eleventh Amendment. To preserve this balance, however, "we must ensure that the doctrine of sovereign immunity remains meaningful, while also giving recognition to the need to prevent violations of federal law." Coeur d'Alene Tribe, 521 U.S. at 269.

But because this balance is a careful one indeed, the Supreme Court has strictly limited the application of the Ex parte Young doctrine to circumstances in which injunctive relief is necessary to "give[ ] life to the Supremacy Clause." Green, 474 U.S. at 68; see also Pennhurst, 465 U.S. at 105, 104 S.Ct. 900(recognizing that "the need to promote the supremacy of federal law must be accommodated to the constitutional immunity of the States"). Thus, a federal court cannot order a State official to remedy past violations of federal law by paying funds out of the State treasury, given that such relief "is in practical effect indistinguishable . . . from an award of damages against the State." Edelman v. Jordan, 415 U.S. 651, 668 (1974). And as "it is difficult to think of a greater intrusion on state sovereignty than when a federal court instructs state