SR International Business Insurance v. World Trade Center Properties, LLC

These are appeals from judgments following two separate phases of a jury trial to adjudicate whether the coordinated terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001— whereby two jetliners separately crashed into the twin towers of the World Trade Center (“WTC”), destroying both buildings — constituted one or two “occurrences” under the terms of multiple insurance contracts. The parties are entities with varying property interests in the WTC (the “Silverstein Parties”)1 and the insurance companies they retained to provide approximately $3.5 billion in multi-layered insurance on a “per occurrence” basis. At issue in the overall litigation is whether the Silverstein Parties can recover in the aggregate up to $3.5 billion, for one occurrence, or up to $7 billion, for two occurrences, under the terms of more than thirty separate insurance contracts that together provide the total coverage. The parties do not dispute that the destruction of the WTC resulted in a loss that greatly exceeds $3.5 billion.

The resolution of the broad question presented in these appeals — whether the coordinated attacks constituted one or two occurrences — is complicated by the fact that, as of September 11, 2001, the Silver-stein Parties were still in the midst of negotiating final property insurance coverage for the WTC. Silverstein Properties had only recently entered into a long-term lease for the WTC and, with one exception, none of the many insurers that it had retained to provide property insurance coverage had issued a final insurance policy. Instead, these insurers had issued temporary binders or slips, which provide interim insurance coverage until a final policy is either issued or refused. Springer v. Allstate Life Ins. Co., 94 N.Y.2d 645, 649, 710 N.Y.S.2d 298, 731 N.E.2d 1106, 1108 (2000). These fully enforceable, interim insurance contracts or binders are a product of necessity: They serve as a “quick and informal device to record the giving of protection pending the execution and delivery of a more conventionally detailed policy of insurance.” Employers Commercial Union Ins. Co. v. Firemen’s Fund Ins. Co., 45 N.Y.2d 608, 613, 412 N.Y.S.2d 121, 384 N.E.2d 668, 670 (1978); see also Springer, 94 N.Y.2d at 650, 710 N.Y.S.2d 298, 731 N.E.2d 1106 (noting that a binder and a final policy are “two distinct agreements”). Because, in this case, the binders left the term “occurrence” undefined, the resolution of the broad question *114presented in these appeals required an individualized inquiry to determine what each pair of parties — the insured Silver-stein Parties and each insurer — intended for the word “occurrence” to mean in each binder.

In a previous opinion in this matter, we explained our understanding of the nature of this individualized inquiry:

In deciding which terms are to be implied in a binder, reliance may be placed on the extrinsic evidence of the parties’ pre-binder negotiations. In particular, we believe that any policy form that was exchanged in the process of negotiating the binder, together with any express modifications to that form, is likely the most reliable manifestation of the terms by which the parties intended to be bound while the binder was in effect. In the absence of such a policy form underlying the negotiations or sufficient extrinsic evidence of the negotiations to determine the parties’ intentions, the terms to be implied would likely be the customary terms of the insurer’s own form.

World Trade Ctr. Props., LLC v. Hartford Fire Ins. Co., 345 F.3d 154, 170 (2d Cir.2003); see also id. at 169 (“To determine the contents of a binder, New York courts generally look to (1) the specific terms contained in the binder or incorporated by reference, and (2) to the extent necessary as gap-fillers, the terms included in the usual policy currently in use by the insurance company [or those required by statute].”); cf. LaPenta v. Gen. Accident Fire & Life Assurance Corp., 62 A.D.2d 1145, 404 N.Y.S.2d 182, 184 (4th Dep’t 1978); see Sherri v. Nat’l Sur. Co., 243 N.Y. 266, 269, 153 N.E. 70, 71 (1926); see also Ell Dee Clothing Co. v. Marsh, 247 N.Y. 392, 396, 160 N.E. 651, 653 (1928).

There are two policy forms that could supply the missing definition of “occurrence” in each insurance binder and, hence, determine the amount of recovery to which the Silverstein Parties are entitled: (1) the Silverstein Parties’ proposed policy form, which was prepared by the Silverstein Parties’ insurance broker, Willis of New York, and used during the negotiations with many of the insurers (the “WilProp form”), or (2) the insurer’s standard policy form. In our previous opinion in this case, affirming the grant of summary judgment to certain insurers, we held that the WilProp form’s definition of “occurrence,” which aggregated and treated as a single occurrence all loses or damages “attributable directly or indirectly to one cause or to one series of similar causes,” contemplated a single-occurrence treatment of the September 11 attacks. World Trade Ctr. Props., 345 F.3d at 180. As a result of our previous holding, the Silverstein Parties are only entitled to a single recovery in all instances where the WilProp form supplies the definition of “occurrence.”

For a large majority of insurers in this case, summary judgment was not possible and, as a result, two principal questions were left unresolved: (1) in each case where an insurer claimed to have bound to the single-occurrence WilProp form, whether the parties actually bound to that form; and (2) in each of the remaining cases, whether the parties intended to issue coverage based on a definition of occurrence that contemplated a one- or two-occurrence treatment of the events of September 11.

To answer these questions, Chief Judge Mukasey of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York held a two-phase jury trial: The first phase was designed to determine which insurers bound to the WilProp form, and the second was designed to determine the number of occurrences for each insurer *115who did not bind to the WilProp form. A jury determined that all but three of the insurers who participated in Phase I bound to the single-occurrence WilProp form. At the conclusion of the second phase of the trial, the jury determined that each of the remaining insurers — the three insurers who were found not to have bound to the WilProp form and six other insurers who conceded that fact — bound coverage to contracts that contemplated a two-occurrence treatment of the events of September 11. The district court entered separate judgments in favor of the prevailing insurers following Phase I and the Silver-stein Parties following Phase II.

We now entertain consolidated appeals filed by both the Silverstein Parties, who lost at Phase I, and the insurers, who lost at Phase II, in which they challenge the Phase I and II jury verdicts, respectively. Finding no error that warrants setting aside the judgments secured by the verdicts, we affirm.

BACKGROUND

In the spring of 2001, Silverstein Properties, Inc. was the successful bidder on a 99-year lease for the WTC in lower Manhattan. As a condition of the lease, the owner of the property, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, required Silverstein Properties to obtain insurance coverage, with the Port Authority and other entities also named as insureds.

Silverstein Properties retained Willis of New York (“Willis”), an international insurance brokerage firm, to negotiate the placement of a multi-layered insurance program, which consisted of a primary layer and eleven excess insurance layers providing a total of $3.54 billion in insurance coverage on a “per occurrence” basis. Willis solicited insurers for the placement by circulating a Property Underwriting Submission (the “Underwriting Submission”). The Underwriting Submission contained information regarding the proposed placement, including descriptions of the property and the insureds, desired coverage terms and conditions, estimated property values, engineering information, and a property loss history. Also included within the Underwriting Submission provided to many of the insurers was a specimen copy of Willis’s own “broker” form, the WilProp form, which was intended to serve as a starting point for the parties as they negotiated over a final policy form.

The WilProp form was designed to be pro-insured; it contained a broad definition of “occurrence,” which treated all losses attributable to a “series of similar causes” as a single “occurrence.” By utilizing a broad definition of the term “occurrence,” the WilProp form served to limit the number of deductibles that the insureds would have to pay in the event of a loss. As the Silverstein Parties explain in their briefing to this court, because “property insurance policies are written so that both deductibles and policy limits are on a ‘per occurrence’ basis[,] ... it is normally in an insured’s interest to be able to lump together related events that would otherwise be deemed separate occurrences into a single occurrence in order to avoid absorbing multiple deductibles.” Of course, this assumes a claimed loss less than the “per occurrence” limit. Because the terrorist attacks of September 11 resulted in a loss that greatly exceeded the total one-occurrence limit of $3.54 billion, the pro -insured WilProp form has the perverse effect of favoring the insurers in that it treats the events of September 11 as a single “occurrence” and subjects any recovery under its terms to the one-occurrence limit.

Over the summer of 2001, Willis submitted the WilProp form to many of the insurers who ultimately bound coverage to the *116WTC placement. Some of the insurers expressed reservations about binding to the WilProp form. The precise nature of the insurers’ reservations — including whether any such reservations applied to the binder period or whether they were limited to the parties’ obligations after a final policy was in place — is the subject of a vigorous dispute between the parties. Again, assuming a claimed loss less than the single-occurrence limit, it would be in an insurer’s interest to narrowly define the term “occurrence” so as to require an insured to pay multiple deductibles for any loss arising out of a series of related events. In the event that a claimed loss exceeded the one-occurrence limit, however, a narrow definition of “occurrence” would be disadvantageous to the insurer; it could enable an insured to assert multiple claims for any loss arising out of a series of related events and, as a result, recover several times the one-occurrence limit.

By the end of July 2001, some of the insurers bound coverage with the WilProp serving as the operative form during the binder period, while other insurers bound coverage with their company form serving as the governing form during the binder period.2 Because only one of these insurers, Allianz Insurance Co. (“Allianz”), issued a final policy before the attacks of September 11, for the vast majority of the insurers, the binders serve as the opera-five contracts governing their obligations following the destruction of the WTC.

On the morning of September 11, 2001, terrorists flew two fuel-laden jetliners into the north and south towers of the WTC, destroying both buildings and cutting short the lives of thousands of people. A little over a month later, SR International Business Insurance Co. filed suit against the Silverstein Parties, “seeking] a judicial declaration of its rights and obligations to all of the insureds under [its insurance] policy” and a “declaration that the damage to the World Trade Center is one insurance loss.” The Silverstein Parties subsequently filed counterclaims against the other WTC insurers, seeking a declaration “that the events of September 11 constituted more than one occurrence under the coverage that the [insurers] agreed to provide to the Silverstein Parties.” After an initial assignment to another judge, the litigation was assigned to Judge John S. Martin Jr. of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York for all purposes.

Thereafter, the parties litigated various motions for summary judgment. Over the course of adjudicating these motions, Judge Martin held that three insurers — - Hartford Fire Insurance Company (“Hartford”), St. Paul Fire & Marine Insurance Company (“St. Paul”), and a division of the Royal Indemnity Company, Royal & SunAlliance’s Risk Management & Global Division (“Royal Global”)3 — issued binders *117governed by the WilProp form and that, under the definition of “occurrence” in that form, the destruction of the WTG was one occurrence as a matter of law. The district court entered final and appealable judgments in favor of these insurers pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 54(b). The district court also denied a motion for summary judgment filed by the Silverstein Parties, in which they argued that the events of September 11, 2001, constituted two occurrences as a matter of law under the undefined term “occurrence” contained in the policy of another insurer, the Travelers Indemnity Company (“Travelers”). The district court certified as an appealable interlocutory order the denial of the Silverstein Parties’ motion for summary judgment. See 28 U.S.C. § 1292(b).

The Silverstein Parties filed appeals from the Rule 54(b) judgments and petitioned this court for leave to appeal the certified interlocutory order pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1292(b). We granted the Silver-stein Parties’ petition and their motion to have the § 1292(b) appeal heard together with their separate appeals from the Rule 54(b) judgments.

On September 26, 2003, we issued an opinion affirming the judgments and order of the district court. World Trade Ctr. Props., LLC v. Hartford Fire Ins. Co., 345 F.3d 154, 190 (2d Cir.2003). We agreed with the district court that, with respect to Hartford, St. Paul, and Royal Global, (1) the binders issued before September 11 served as the operative contracts for these insurers, see id. at 169, (2) these binders were governed by the WilProp form, id. at 170-80, and (3) the destruction of the WTC was one occurrence as a matter of law under the definition of “occurrence” in the WilProp form, id. at 180. In reaching this determination, we noted that, because the binders did not define the term “occurrence,” we would look to extrinsic evidence of the parties’ pre-binder negotiations. Id. at 170. Our review of those negotiations supported the district court’s conclusion that Hartford, St. Paul, and Royal Global each issued binders governed by the Wil-Prop form’s “single-occurrence” definition. See id. at 170-80.

The Silverstein Parties’ certified interlocutory appeal raised separate questions. That appeal was based on a two-step argument. The Silverstein Parties first argued that, “where an insurance policy uses the term ‘occurrence’ without defining the term, then, as a matter of law, the term’s meaning is not ambiguous and must be decided by reference to well established New York legal precedent”; they “further argue[d] that under the definition of ‘occurrence’ established by New York law, the events of September 11th constituted two occurrences as a matter of law.” Id. at 180 (emphasis added). We rejected these arguments. Specifically, we held, among other things, that (1) the Travelers binder served as the operative contract, id. at 183, (2) because the Travelers binder was an incomplete and unintegrated contract, we could resort to extrinsic evidence to determine the parties’ intentions with respect to the undefined term “occurrence,” see id. at 184-85, (3) the undefined term “occurrence” did not have a uniform meaning under New York law, id. at 186, 188-89, and (4) “the meaning of ‘occurrence’ in the Travelers binder is sufficiently ambiguous under New York law to preclude summary judgment and to warrant consideration by [a] fact finder of extrinsic *118evidence to determine the parties’ intentions,” id. at 190.

Shortly after we issued our September 26 opinion, Judge Martin retired from the judiciary after many years of distinguished service. The WTC insurance litigation was reassigned to Chief Judge Michael B. Mu-kasey of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York.

Chief Judge Mukasey structured a two-phase jury trial to adjudicate the two principal factual disputes that remained unresolved following our September 26 opinion: (1) in each case where an insurer claimed to have bound to the “single-occurrence” WilProp form, whether the parties actually bound to that form (Phase I); and (2) in each of the cases where the WilProp form was found or conceded not to govern, whether the parties intended to issue coverage based on a definition of occurrence that contemplated a one- or two-occurrence treatment of the events of September 11 (Phase II). Twelve insurers and twenty Lloyd’s-of-London syndicates participated in Phase I. Six other insurers chose not to participate in Phase I, conceding that their coverage was not governed by the WilProp form.

At the end of Phase I, the jury found that nine of the twelve participating insurers and all twenty of the Lloyd’s syndicates bound to the WilProp form. The remaining three insurers, who were found not to have bound to the WilProp form, had their claims adjudicated in Phase II along with the six insurers who conceded that their coverage was not governed by the WilProp form. The Phase II jury determined that all nine of these insurers issued binders or, in the case of Allianz, a final policy that contemplated a two-occurrence treatment of the events of September 11. The district court rejected various motions and entered final judgments in favor of the nine successful insurers and the twenty Lloyd’s syndicates following Phase I and the Silverstein Parties following Phase II.

These appeals followed, in which the Silverstein Parties challenge the judgments entered against them following Phase I and the Phase II insurers challenge the judgments entered against them following Phase II. We consolidated the parties’ appeals and heard oral argument in tandem.

DISCUSSION

The Silverstein Parties and the Phase II insurers present parallel arguments on appeal. Both sides claim here, as they did below, that they are entitled to judgment as a matter of law, and both sides argue that, in any event, the judgments entered against them were secured by a variety of evidentiary errors and a mistaken set of jury instructions. Not surprisingly, however, neither side admits that any errors contributed to the judgments in their favor. As a result, we are led to believe that the same types of error that would require us to set aside one set of judgments are unfounded when it comes to the other set of judgments — and vice versa.

We review de novo the denial of a motion for judgment as a matter of law. Sanders v. New York City Human Res. Admin., 361 F.3d 749, 755 (2d Cir.2004). “In doing so, however, [we] must draw all reasonable inferences in favor of the non-moving party, and [we] may not make credibility determinations or weigh the evidence.” Reeves v. Sanderson Plumbing Prods., 530 U.S. 133, 150, 120 S.Ct. 2097, 147 L.Ed.2d 105 (2000). Moreover, we “must disregard all evidence favorable to the moving party that the jury is not required to believe.” Otero v. Bridgeport Hous. Auth., 297 F.3d 142, 151 (2d Cir.2002) (quotation marks omitted). “We *119[will] reverse [the denial of a motion for judgment as a matter of law] only when there is ‘such a complete absence of evidence supporting the verdict that the jury’s findings could only have been the result of sheer surmise and conjecture,’ or where there is ‘such an overwhelming amount of evidence’ in favor of the moving party that fair minded jurors could not reasonably arrive at a verdict against the movant.” Sanders, 361 F.3d at 755 (quoting Phillips v. Bowen, 278 F.3d 103, 108 (2d Cir.2002)).

We review a district court’s evidentiary rulings under a deferential abuse of discretion standard, United States v. Fabian, 312 F.3d 550, 557 (2d Cir.2002), and will not disturb such rulings unless they are “manifestly erroneous,” Luciano v. Olsten Corp., 110 F.3d 210, 217 (2d Cir.1997) (citation and quotation marks omitted). In conducting our review, we are mindful of the “wide latitude” that traditionally has been afforded to district courts both in determining whether evidence is admissible, Meloff v. New York Life Ins. Co., 240 F.3d 138, 148 (2d Cir.2001) (citation and quotation marks omitted), and in controlling “the mode and order” of its presentation to promote the effective ascertainment of the truth, Fed.R.Evid. 611(a).

No error in either the admission or the exclusion of evidence ... is ground for granting a new trial or for setting aside a verdict ... unless refusal to take such action appears to the court inconsistent with substantial justice. The court at every stage of the proceeding must disregard any error or defect in the proceeding which does not affect the substantial rights of the parties.

Fed.R.Civ.P. 61. “Whether an evidentiary error implicates a substantial right depends on the likelihood that the error affected the outcome of the case.” Tesser v. Bd. of Educ. of City Sch. Dist., 370 F.3d 314, 319 (2d Cir.2004) (quotation marks omitted). The moving party has the burden of showing that “it is likely that in some material respect the factfinder’s judgment was swayed by the error.” Id.

Finally, we review de novo a claim of error in the district court’s jury instructions and will set aside a judgment secured by an erroneous charge “ ‘only if the appellant shows that the error was prejudicial in light of the charge as a whole.’ ” Caruolo v. John Crane, Inc., 226 F.3d 46, 56 (2d Cir.2000) (quoting Japan Airlines Co. v. Port Auth., 178 F.3d 103, 110 (2d Cir.1999)). “Jury instructions are erroneous if they mislead the jury or do not adequately inform the jury of the law.” Id. It is axiomatic, however, that “a jury charge should be examined in its entirety, not scrutinized strand-by-strand.” Time, Inc. v. Petersen Publ’g Co., 173 F.3d 113, 119 (2d Cir.1999) (citation and quotation marks omitted).

I. Phase I Appeals

The issue before the Phase I jury was whether the participating insurers issued binders governed by the WilProp form, which we have already held requires a one-occurrence treatment of the events of September 11. World Trade Ctr. Props., 345 F.3d at 180. The Phase I insurers are twelve insurance companies and twenty Lloyd’s syndicates who claim to have bound to the single-occurrence WilProp form. They can be divided into three groups: (1) London insurers (the twenty Lloyd’s syndicates and five other London-based and European insurers Copenhagen Reinsurance Co. (“Copenhagen Re”), Great Lakes Reinsurance PLC (“Great Lakes”), Houston Casualty Co. (“Houston Casualty”), QBE International Insurance Ltd. (“QBE”), and Württembergisehe Ver-sicherung AG (“Württ”)), (2) SR International Business Insurance Co. (“Swiss *120Re”), and (3) six domestic insurers (Federal Insurance Co. (“Federal”), Lexington Insurance Co. (“Lexington”), Royal Specialty Underwriting, Inc. (“Royal Specialty”), Twin City Fire Insurance Co. (“Twin City”), Employers Insurance of Wausau (“Wausau”), and Zurich American Insurance Co. (“Zurich”)). The Phase I jury found that nine of the twelve insurers and all twenty of the Lloyd’s syndicates issued binders governed by the one-occurrence WilProp form. The jury found that three of the twelve insurers did not bind to the WilProp form. These insurers (Zurich, Royal Specialty, and Twin City) did not appeal the Phase I verdicts and were tried in Phase II along with six more insurers who conceded that they did not bind to the WilProp form.

On appeal, the Silverstein parties assert three principal arguments with respect to the adverse judgments secured by the Phase I verdicts; they argue that they are entitled to (1) judgment as a matter of law against the London insurers, Swiss Re, and Federal; (2) a new trial as to,all of the insurers based on prejudicial evidentiary errors; and (3) a new trial as to all of the insurers based on errors in the district court’s charge. The Silverstein Parties also assert a variety of subsidiary arguments, which do not warrant formal treatment in this opinion. We turn to their principal arguments.

A. Judgment as a Matter of Law

As an initial matter, the Silverstein Parties argue that the question whether the London insurers, Swiss Re, and Federal bound to the WilProp form should have never reached a jury. They contend that there is overwhelming evidence that these insurers did not bind to the WilProp form, either because of the actions of these insurers or the language that they placed in their binders. We reject these arguments: The Silverstein Parties ignore unfavorable evidence and rely on inferences and assumptions that the jury was not required to make.

1. London Insurers

The Silverstein Parties contend that all but one of the London insurers issued “slips” (the European equivalent to binders), which contained language that unambiguously negates an intent on the part of those insurers to bind to the Wil-Prop form. The language at issue provides:

FORM: J(A) and/or Companies Insurance Policy plus Wording as per Co-insurers’. Agreement of wording waived.4

The Silverstein Parties argue that the wording “FORM: ... Agreement of wording waived” manifests an intent on the part of the London insurers not to issue slips governed by the WilProp form. We disagree.

There are a variety of explanations for this language, any one of which is sufficient to defeat the Silverstein Parties’ claim to judgment as a matter of law. As an initial matter, the Silverstein Parties’ argument relies on the assumption that *121the “FORM” section applies to the binder period. It is equally plausible that this section was intended only to apply to the final policy form. Under this alternative reading, the London insurers simply expressed their intention to waive their consent to the final policy wording but were willing to bind immediately to the WilProp form. In our prior opinion in this matter, we explained that “the fact that an insurer ... demonstrated an intention to be bound by the final policy form as ultimately negotiated by [another insurer] would be relevant only to the parties’ post-binder relationship, which is of no import to this case.” World Trade Ctr. Props., 345 F.3d at 170.

The Silverstein Parties argue that reading the “FORM” section to apply only to the final policy period “defies common sense” because it means that the London “insurers were somehow willing to give up any say as to what policy form would ultimately govern their risk once the formal policy issued, but nonetheless were requiring that the WilProp form apply during the slip period.” Again, we disagree. As the London insurers explain, it is equally plausible that “[t]hey were ... prepared to waive their rights to agree [to the final policy] form because ... other capable co-insurers would do that work” for them.5 Moreover, another section of the slips, entitled “INFORMATION”, deemed to have been read and incorporated into the slips: “Underwriting data on file with Willis Limited.” A reasonable jury could have concluded that this section governed the binder period and incorporated Willis’s Underwriting Submission, which included the WilProp form.

Even if we were to assume that the “FORM” section does apply to the interim binder period — an assumption that we are not entitled to make in reviewing the denial of a motion for judgment as a matter of law — it is also possible that the language “wording as per Co-insurers” indicates an intent on the part of the London insurers to bind to the same form to which many of their co-insurers had bound: the WilProp form. These explanations, which a reasonable jury could have accepted, are sufficient to defeat the Silverstein Parties’ claim to judgment as a matter of law against the London insurers.

2. Swiss Re

With respect to Swiss Re, the Sil-verstein Parties argue that they are entitled to judgment as a matter of law because there is overwhelming evidence that Swiss Re rejected the WilProp form. This argument is based chiefly on three discrete facts: (1) the operative slip that governed Swiss Re’s obligations was issued on July 26, 2001, (2) the July 26 slip was exchanged as an e-mail attachment along with a copy of the Travelers form, not the WilProp form, and (3) there is no evidence that Swiss Re did anything thereafter to reject the Travelers form or incorporate the WilProp form into the governing slip.

The Silverstein Parties’ argument, however, ignores other evidence before the jury, including evidence that Swiss Re initially bound to a slip issued on July 9, which was governed by the WilProp form, and that Swiss Re was unaware that Willis had replaced the WilProp form with the Travelers form when Swiss Re re-executed *122the slip on July 26. Specifically, a reasonable jury could have found that (1) Willis included within its solicitation to Swiss Re a copy of the WilProp form; (2) during the period prior to binding coverage, Swiss Re and Willis actively negotiated specific provisions contained in the WilProp form; (3) on July 6, Willis forwarded to Swiss Re a slip and appended the WilProp form; (4) on July 9, Swiss Re executed the July 6 slip; (5) on July 18, Swiss Re’s WTC coverage became effective with the WilProp serving as the governing form; (6) on July 23, Willis forwarded to Swiss Re an e-mail with a revised slip and included an unspecified document labeled “form,” which was appended to the e-mail as an attachment; (7) during a telephone conversation on July 23, Willis did not inform Swiss Re that it had attached a new form, the Travelers form, to the e-mail instead of the WilProp form; (8) on July 26, Swiss Re executed the revised slip; and (9) even though the Travelers form was the unspecified form that was attached to the July 23 e-mail, Swiss Re was unaware of this fact and believed that the form was intended only to memorialize certain handwritten modifications that it had made to the July 9 slip, not to change the form that governed during the binder period.

Based on these facts, the Silverstein parties are not entitled to judgment as a matter of law against Swiss Re. Daniel Bollier, the Swiss Re employee who negotiated the slip, testified unequivocally that he did not assign any significance to the Travelers form, which had been appended to the same July 23 e-mail that included the revised slip. He testified that he opened and scanned through the form on his computer but did not believe that it related “to the Silverstein risk.” He further testified that he believed the form to be a “resending of the WilProp coverage form.” A jury was entitled to credit this testimony and conclude that Swiss Re did not assent to change the form after it already had bound to the WilProp form.

Undeterred, the Silverstein Parties argue that they are entitled to judgment as a matter of law for two principal reasons. They argue that (1) Bollier rejected the WilProp form as a matter of law during the pre-binder negotiations, and (2) in any event, the July 26 slip (with the attached Travelers form) superceded the previous slip (with the WilProp form). The Silver-stein Parties’ arguments are without merit. The jury was entitled to find that Bollier did not reject the WilProp form during the pre-binder negotiations, and it was likewise entitled to find that, after binding to the WilProp form, Swiss Re never gave its assent to change to the Travelers form.

3. Federal

The Silverstein Parties also argue that they are entitled to judgment as a matter of law against Federal, because the plain language of Federal’s binder negates any intent to bind to the WilProp form. This argument relies on select pieces of evidence and ignores disputed issues properly committed to the jury; we reject their argument accordingly.

In soliciting Federal’s participation on the WTC placement, Timothy Boyd of Willis sent Federal’s underwriter, Carmela O’Neal, a proposed binder and a copy of the WilProp form. On the afternoon of July 10, 2001, O’Neal sent three e-mails to Boyd, authorizing Federal’s participation in the WTC program. On July 18, after a series of negotiations as to the layer that Federal would be participating in and the amount of coverage that it would be providing, O’Neal confirmed that coverage had been bound and issued Boyd a policy number.

There was evidence before the jury that after Federal bound coverage the parties *123wished to formalize their relationship. On July 20, 2001, Boyd sent O’Neal a proposed document entitled “Binder of Insurance.” O’Neal responded by indicating that she had several problems with the proposed binder. In response, Boyd promised to send O’Neal a revised binder.

Roughly one week later, Boyd and O’Neal spoke. Boyd was looking for the signed formal binder, but O’Neal reminded him that he had promised to send her a revised binder. Boyd stated that he had not sent the revision because other carriers, including Travelers, were still making form changes. O’Neal testified that in order to expedite the process, she agreed to make handwritten modifications to the previous binder.

The Silverstein Parties contend that these handwritten changes establish, as a matter of law, that Federal did not intend to bind to the WilProp. O’Neal inserted at the end of the binder: “Subject to manuscript form wording to be agreed. Best terms and conditions apply.” Based on this modification, the Silverstein Parties contend that “O’Neal made manifest on the face of the binder her intent not then and there to be agreeing to any particular form but rather to leave for future agreement the policy form that would govern Federal’s coverage.” In response, Federal argues that the “Silverstein [parties] cannot show that their proffered interpretation of the binder is the ‘only one permitted by the evidence.’ ” Federal continues, “To the contrary, the evidence showed that O’Neal bound Federal’s coverage to Wil-Prop, and did so nearly two weeks before O’Neal marked-up, signed and returned the ‘formal’ Willis binder form.”

We are persuaded by Federal’s argument. Based on the evidence of the parties’ negotiations, the jury was entitled “to find that O’Neal’s reference to ‘manuscript form wording to be agreed’ concerned the negotiation of the final policy form and had no bearing upon the coverage provided temporarily by Federal’s binder based upon the WilProp form.” Federal Br. 18. “The jury also was entitled to find that the reference to ‘best terms and conditions’ likewise pertained to the final policy .... ” Id. This explanation is not inconsistent with our 17 understanding of the law:

“[T]he terms of a binder are not left to future negotiation. The law of New York with respect to binders does not look to the negotiations of the parties to see what terms might ultimately have been incorporated into a formal policy.” SR Int’l Bus. Ins. Co. v. World Trade Ctr. Props., LLC (“Hartford Decision’’), 222 F.Supp.2d 385, 388-89 (S.D.N.Y.2002). Rather, the negotiations are examined to determine what terms the parties intended to incorporate into the binder.

World Trade Ctr. Props., 345 F.3d at 169 (emphasis added) (alteration and ellipsis omitted) (citation altered); see also id. at 170 (“[T]he fact that an insurer ... demonstrated an intention to be bound by the final policy form as ultimately negotiated by [another insurer] would be relevant only to the parties’ post-binder relationship, which is of no import to this case.”).

Because the Silverstein parties’ interpretation of the parties’ negotiations is not the “only one permitted by the evidence,” This Is Me, Inc. v. Taylor, 157 F.3d 139, 145 (2d Cir.1998), it cannot support their argument for judgment as a matter of law. A reasonable jury could find that (1) Federal bound to the WilProp and (2) it never agreed to change the form that governed during the binder period.

B. Evidentiary Challenges

The Silverstein Parties argue that numerous evidentiary errors, in both the admission and exclusion of evidence, contrib*124uted to the jury’s adverse verdicts and entitle them to a new trial as to each of the Phase I appellee-insurers. Only two of these alleged errors warrant formal treatment in this opinion: (1) whether the district court abused its discretion in excluding London-based custom and usage evidence, and if so, whether that error was prejudicial; and (2) whether the district court abused its discretion in admitting evidence of the London insurers’ uncom-municated subjective intent, and if so, whether that error was prejudicial.

1. Exclusion of London Custom and Usage Evidence

At trial, the Silverstein Parties “sought to introduce a wealth of custom and usage evidence showing that in the London insurance market brokers and underwriters who intend to incorporate a particular policy form into a slip do so by specifying that form on the slip by name or other ‘unique reference’ ... and that this failure of designation [in the London insurers’ slips] coupled with the slips’ language of waiver signified that the London insurers had not bound to WilProp.” Silver-stein Parties’ Br. 71. The district court excluded this evidence, based chiefly upon a concern that it might conflict with our prior decision in this matter. The district court appears to have reasoned that, because, under New York law, a party need not specifically reference a form on a binder in order to bind to that form, see World Trade Ctr. Props., 345 F.3d at 169-70, evidence that the London insurers must— as a matter of custom — specifically refer to a form by name on the slip in order to bind to that form would contradict New York law. Cf. Uribe v. Merchants Bank of N.Y., 91 N.Y.2d 336, 342, 670 N.Y.S.2d 393, 693 N.E.2d 740, 744 (1998) (holding that the specific customs and practices of a particular industry “should not be imputed to the average merchant and should not supersede the more generally applicable rules” that governed the interpretation of the contract at issue).

As we understand their argument, the Silverstein Parties sought to establish that, because the London insurers did not follow their ordinary practice, which was to specifically refer to a form by name on the slip, that evidence suggests that the London insurers did not intend to bind to the WilProp form. We agree that evidence that the London insurers did not follow a market custom and practice is relevant to determining the parties’ intent. Cf. World Trade Ctr. Props., 345 F.3d at 186 (“[W]e have specifically instructed courts to consider the ‘customs, practices, usages and terminology as generally understood in the particular trade or business’ in identifying ambiguity within a contract ... [a]nd New York courts have long held that such evidence is admissible for purposes of construing an insurance binder.” (citations omitted)). The district court, however, showed sensitivity to this portion of the Silverstein Parties’ argument. Chief Judge Mukasey asked the London insurers’ counsel, “If your clients testify to what they expected or believed [their actions to mean], why can’t they be cross-examined on what in fact goes on in the market in which they function?” In the end, Judge Mukasey appears to have balanced these competing interests — the need to permit extrinsic evidence of the parties’ intent with the desire to exclude evidence that might be viewed as superceding New York law — by precluding the Silverstein Parties from submitting direct evidence of London-based custom and practice but permitting the Silverstein Parties to cross-examine the London insurers’ witnesses on this point. In our opinion, the district court did not abuse it discretion i