Nicosia v. Amazon.com, Inc.

In 2013, plaintiff-appellant Dean Nicosia purchased 1 Day Diet, a weight loss product containing sibutramine, a controlled substance that had been removed from the market in October 2010, on the website of defendant-appellee Amazon.com, Inc. (“Amazon”). Nicosia brought this action below, asserting claims under the Consumer Product Safety Act (the “CPSA”), 15 U.S.C. § 2051 et seq., and state law.

The district court (Townes, J.) dismissed the complaint on the ground that the parties are bound by the mandatory arbitration provision in Amazon’s Conditions of Use. It found that Nicosia was on constructive notice of the terms and that he assented to mandatory arbitration when he placed his order on the website. In the same memorandum and order, the district court treated Nicosia’s motion for preliminary injunctive relief as a motion for a preliminary injunction in aid of arbitration, and denied the motion on the ground that he lacked standing to seek an injunction blocking Amazon from selling items containing sibutramine and requiring Amazon to send remedial notices to consumers.

We affirm the district court’s denial of injunctive relief, vacate the dismissal for failure to state a claim, and remand for further proceedings.

BACKGROUND

I. The Facts

A. As Alleged in the Complaint

Nicosia is an Amazon customer. On. both January 30 and April 19, 2013, he used the Amazon website to purchase 1 Day Diet (One Day Diet) Best Slimming Capsule 60 Pills (“1 Day Diet”), a weight loss drug containing sibutramine. Sibutramine is a Schedule IV stimulant that was withdrawn from the market in October 2010 by the Food and Drug Administration (the “FDA”) because its association with cardiovascular risks and strokes outweighed its limited weight loss value. Prior to the FDA’s removal of sibutramine from the market, it was only available to consumers with a doctor’s prescription. After its removal, the FDA advised physicians to stop prescribing sibutramine and to advise patients to cease its consumption due to its risks, including “major adverse cardiovascular events.” 1

At the time of his purchase, Nicosia did not know that 1 Day Diet contained sibu-tramine and he did not have a doctor’s prescription. Sibutramine was not listed as an ingredient on Amazon’s website or on the 1 Day Diet packaging, and Amazon sold the product without requiring a prescription. It was only revealed in November 2013 by the FDA that 1 Day Diet contained sibutramine.

Amazon has since stopped selling 1 Day Diet but never notified Nicosia that 1 Day Diet contained the stimulant or offered to refund his purchases. As of the filing of the complaint in July 2014, Amazon continued to sell other weight loss products identified by the FDA as containing undisclosed amounts of sibutramine.

B. Additional Factual Assertions

In moving to dismiss the complaint, Amazon submitted a declaration of a paralegal in its legal department, who represented that Amazon’s records showed that Nico*227sia used an Amazon account created on June 9, 2008 to make his purchases and that the purchases were made in January and April 2013. Attached to the declaration was a screenshot of Amazon’s account registration webpage apparently in use in 2008, bearing a copyright notice dated “1996-2014” (the “Registration Page”). The declaration also attached a screenshot of Amazon’s order page, bearing a copyright notice dated “1996-2014”; a customer purchasing an item in 2013 apparently would have seen this screen before completing a purchase. Amazon later submitted a corrected version of the order page, also bearing a copyright notice dated “1996-2014” (the “Order Page”).2

. The Registration Page and the Order Page both included a link to Amazon’s “Conditions of Use.” The Amazon declaration provided a copy of the conditions of use apparently in effect in 2013, when Nicosia made his purchases, as they were last updated December 5, 2012 (“2012 Conditions of Use”). They included the following mandatory arbitration provision:

Any dispute or claim relating in any way to your use of any Amazon Service, or to any products or services sold or distributed by Amazon or through Amazon.com will be resolved by binding arbitration, rather than in court.... We each agree that any dispute resolution proceedings will be conducted only on an individual basis and not in a class, consolidated or representative action.

J. App. 20-21 (emphases omitted).

In his opposition to the motion to dismiss, Nicosia challenged Amazon’s assertions that he had registered for an Amazon account. He also introduced a copy of Amazon’s prior conditions of use, which his counsel contended were in place in 2008 (“2008 Conditions of Use”). These did not include an arbitration provision, but merely included a choice of forum clause designating “any state or federal court in King County, Washington,” as the forum with exclusive jurisdiction and venue over consumer claims exceeding $7,500. J. App. 50.

II. Procedural History

Nicosia brought this putative class action below against Amazon, alleging that Amazon had sold and was continuing to sell weight loss products containing sibu-tramine to its customers in violation of the CPSA, 15 U.S.C. §§ 2051-89, and state consumer protection laws. He alleged additional claims for breach of implied warranty and unjust enrichment. The complaint sought both damages and an injunction to prohibit Amazon from further sale of products containing sibutramine.

After suit was filed, Amazon informed the district court that it intended to move to dismiss the complaint on the ground that Nicosia was subject to Amazon’s mandatory arbitration provision. The district court stayed discovery pending resolution of Amazon’s anticipated motion to dismiss.

On October 2, 2014, Nicosia sought reconsideration of the district court’s stay of discovery with respect to “subjects put at issue by Defendant’s requested motions to dismiss Plaintiffs individual claims and to compel arbitration.” PL’s Ltr. 1, ECF No. 23. Nicosia requested discovery concerning his “individual purchases of 1 Day Diet ... from Amazon, and discovery supporting Amazon’s claims that Plaintiff provided his individual consent to arbitrate his claims made in this action.” Id. at 2. The *228district court denied Nicosia’s motion for reconsideration of the discovery stay, clarifying that “all discovery in this action is temporarily stayed pending resolution of the motion to dismiss,” but ruling that “[t]o the extent limited discovery becomes necessary in connection with a factual dispute in the anticipated motion to dismiss, Plaintiff may then submit proposed narrowly-tailored and specific requests to the Court for approval prior to propounding any such request.” Special App. 4.

Nicosia moved for preliminary injunctive relief on December 19, 2014, requesting an order enjoining Amazon from selling weight loss products containing sibutra-mine and requiring Amazon to provide remedial notices to past consumers of those products.

On December 24, 2014, Amazon moved to dismiss the complaint. Amazon did not move to compel arbitration, but instead argued that the complaint should be dismissed “in favor of individual arbitration” for failure to state a claim because Nicosia had agreed to arbitration. Mot. to Dismiss 5, ECF No. 52-1. Amazon submitted the declaration and the exhibits described above.

The district court granted Amazon’s motion to dismiss, concluding that Nicosia failed to state a claim because he was on constructive notice of Amazon’s conditions of use. In doing,so, the district court relied on the Order Page and the 2012 Conditions of Use as well as Amazon’s assertion that Nicosia created an Amazon account in 2008 by signing on through the Registration Page, and used that account to make his purchases of 1 Day Diet. The district court then concluded that Nicosia was given reasonable notice of the conditions of use given: (1) the conspicuousness of the hyperlink to the 2012 Conditions of Use on the Order Page; and (2) the fact that Nicosia signed up for an Amazon account via the Registration Page in 2008, which required assent to the 2008 Conditions of Use that named King County as the forum for suit but provided that the conditions were subject to change.

The district court also concluded that questions as to the validity of the agreement as a whole had to be submitted to arbitration. After acknowledging that courts generally consider the merits of requested injunctive relief even where the underlying claims will be sent to arbitration, the district court then held that Nicosia lacked standing to pursue a preliminary injunction, and that, in any event, he could not obtain this relief because he did not demonstrate a likelihood of prevailing on the merits of his CPSA claim.

This appeal followed.

DISCUSSION

We consider first the district court’s grant of Amazon’s motion to dismiss and second its denial of Nicosia’s motion for a preliminary injunction.

I. The Motion to Dismiss

A. Applicable Law

The principal issue presented is whether Nicosia is bound by the mandatory arbitration provision in Amazon’s Conditions of Use. Procedural and substantive questions of law are implicated.

1. Procedural Framework

The Federal Arbitration Act (the “FAA”) provides that “[a] written provision in ... a contract ... to settle by arbitration a controversy thereafter arising out of [the] contract ... shall be valid, irrevocable, and enforceable.” 9 U.S.C. § 2. The Supreme Court has repeatedly instructed that the FAA “embod[ies] [a] national policy favoring arbitration.” AT & *229T Mobility LLC v. Concepcion, 563 U.S. 333, 346, 131 S.Ct. 1740, 179 L.Ed.2d 742 (2011) (second alteration in original) (quoting Buckeye Check Cashing, Inc. v. Cardegna, 546 U.S. 440, 443, 126 S.Ct. 1204, 163 L.Ed.2d 1038 (2006)). “[TJhis policy is founded on a desire to preserve the parties’ ability to agree to arbitrate, rather than litigate, disputes.” Schnabel v. Trilegiant Corp., 697 F.3d 110, 118 (2d Cir. 2012). But the FAA “does not require parties to arbitrate when they have not agreed to do so.” Id. (quoting Volt Info. Scis., Inc. v. Bd. of Trs. of Leland Stanford Junior Univ., 489 U.S. 468, 478, 109 S.Ct. 1248, 103 L.Ed.2d 488 (1989)).

The question of whether the parties have agreed to arbitrate, i.e., the “question of arbitrability,” is an issue for judicial determination unless the parties clearly and unmistakably provide otherwise. Howsam v. Dean Witter Reynolds, Inc., 537 U.S. 79, 83, 123 S.Ct. 588, 154 L.Ed.2d 491 (2002); see also Bensadoun v. Jobe-Riat, 316 F.3d 171, 175 (2d Cir. 2003). “This principle ‘flow[s] inexorably from the fact that arbitration is simply a matter of contract between the parties.’” Wachovia Bank, Nat’l Ass’n v. VCG Special Opportunities Master Fund, Ltd., 661 F.3d 164, 171 (2d Cir. 2011) (quoting First Options of Chi., Inc. v. Kaplan, 514 U.S. 938, 943, 115 S.Ct. 1920, 131 L.Ed.2d 985 (1995)). The threshold question of whether the parties indeed agreed to arbitrate is determined by state contract law principles. Specht v. Netscape Commc’ns Corp., 306 F.3d 17, 27 (2d Cir. 2002).

The question of arbitrability usually arises in the context of a motion to compel arbitration. Under the FAA, parties can petition the district court for an order directing that “arbitration proceed in the manner provided for in such agreement.” 9 U.S.C. § 4. The district court must stay proceedings once it is “satisfied that the parties have agreed in writing to arbitrate an issue or issues underlying the district court proceeding.” WorldCrisa Corp. v. Armstrong, 129 F.3d 71, 74 (2d Cir. 1997) (quoting McMahan Sec. Co. v. Forum Capital Mkts. L.P., 35 F.3d 82, 85 (2d Cir. 1994)). In deciding motions to compel, courts apply a “standard similar to that applicable for a motion for summary judgment.” Bensadoun, 316 F.3d at 175. The summary judgment standard requires a court to “consider all relevant, admissible evidence submitted by the parties and contained in pleadings, depositions, answers to interrogatories, and admissions on file’ together with ... affidavits.” Chambers v. Time Warner, Inc., 282 F.3d 147, 155 (2d Cir. 2002) (internal quotation marks omitted). In doing so, the court must draw all reasonable inferences in favor of the non-moving party. See Wachovia Bank, 661 F.3d at 171-72.

“If there is an issue of fact as to the making of the agreement for arbitration, then a trial is necessary.” Bensadoun, 316 F.3d at 175 (citing 9 U.S.C. § 4 (“If the making of the arbitration agreement ... be in issue, the court shall proceed summarily to the trial thereof.”)); accord Sphere Drake Ins. Ltd. v. Clarendon Nat’l Ins. Co., 263 F.3d 26, 30 (2d Cir. 2001). “[BJut where the undisputed facts in the record require the matter of arbitrability to be decided against one side or the other as a matter of law, we may rule on the basis of that legal issue and ‘avoid the need for further court proceedings.’ ” Wachovia Bank, 661 F.3d at 172 (quoting Bensadoun, 316 F.3d at 175).

In this case, Amazon did not move to compel arbitration and instead moved pursuant to Rule 12(b)(6) to dismiss the complaint for failure to state a claim upon which relief may be granted, relying, on the arbitration provision in the 2012 Condi*230tions of Use. See Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(b)(6). Some district courts in this Circuit have treated motions to dismiss based on mandatory arbitration clauses as motions to compel arbitration. See, e.g., Begonja v. Vornado Realty Tr., No. 15 Civ. 4665 (PAE), 159 F.Supp.3d 402, 405, 2016 WL 356090, at *1 n.l (S.D.N.Y. Jan. 29, 2016); Cupples v. Valic Fin. Advisors, Inc., No. 13-CV-4501(JS)(AKT), 2014 WL 4662272, at *3 (E.D.N.Y. Sept. 18, 2014); Jillian Mech. Corp. v. United Serv. Workers Union Local 355, 882 F.Supp.2d 358, 363 (E.D.N.Y. 2012). The district court here, however, specifically declined to do so because, it reasoned, Amazon had not explicitly or implicitly asked the court to order arbitration. We agree with the district court that because Amazon’s motion to dismiss neither sought an order compelling arbitration nor indicated that Amazon would seek to force Nicosia to arbitrate in the future, it was proper not to construe the motion to dismiss as a motion to compel arbitration, to which the summary judgment standard would apply.

Nicosia argues that the district court erred in not construing Amazon’s motion as a motion to compel arbitration, citing Bensadoun v. Jobe-Riat, 316 F.3d 171 (2d Cir. 2003). There, we held that it was “appropriate” to use the “summary judgment standard .... in cases where the District Court is required to determine arbitrability, regardless of whether the relief sought is an order to compel arbitration or to prevent arbitration.” Id. at 175. We did not, however, hold that the summary judgment standard was “mandatory” in such cases. When the moving party does not manifest an intention to arbitrate the dispute, Bensadoun does not require the district court to convert the motion to dismiss to one to compel. Here, given the absence of a clear indication of Amazon’s intent to compel Nicosia to arbitrate, the district court properly proceeded with the motion as one to dismiss, without converting it to a motion to compel arbitration.3 Accordingly, we review the district court’s ruling as the grant of a motion to dismiss pursuant to Rule 12(b)(6).

We review de novo the dismissal of a complaint pursuant to Rule 12(b)(6), construing the complaint liberally, accepting all factual allegations as true, and drawing all reasonable inferences in the plaintiffs favor. Chen v. Major League Baseball Props., Inc., 798 F.3d 72, 76 (2d Cir. 2015). “To survive a motion to dismiss, a complaint must contain sufficient factual matter, accepted as true, to ‘state a claim to relief that is plausible on its face.’ ” Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662, 678, 129 S.Ct. 1937, 173 L.Ed.2d 868 (2009) (quoting Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly, 550 U.S. 544, 570, 127 S.Ct. 1955, 167 L.Ed.2d 929 (2007)).

A complaint “is deemed to include any written instrument attached to it as an exhibit or any statements or documents incorporated in it by reference.” Chambers, 282 F.3d at 152 (quoting Int’l Audiotext Network, Inc. v. AT & T Co., 62 F.3d 69, 72 (2d Cir. 1995) (per curiam))-, see also Brass v. Am. Film Techs., Inc., 987 F.2d 142, 150 (2d Cir. 1993). “Where a document is not incorporated by reference, the court may nevertheless consider it where the complaint ‘relies heavily upon its terms and effect,’ thereby rendering the document ‘integral’ to the complaint.” DiFolco v. MSNBC Cable L.L.C., 622 F.3d 104, 111 (2d Cir. 2010) (quoting Mangiafi-*231co v. Blumenthal, 471 F.3d 391, 398 (2d Cir. 2006)); see also Chambers, 282 F.3d at 153. A “necessary prerequisite” for taking into account materials extraneous to the complaint “is that the ‘plaintiff rely on the terms and effect of the document in drafting the complaint; mere notice or possession is not enough.’ ” Global Network Commc’ns, Inc. v. City of New York, 458 F.3d 150, 156 (2d Cir. 2006) (alterations omitted) (quoting Chambers, 282 F.3d at 153). This generally occurs when the material considered is a “contract or other legal document containing obligations upon which the plaintiffs complaint stands or falls, but which for some reason — usually because the document, read in its entirety, would undermine the legitimacy of the plaintiffs claim — was not attached to the complaint.” Id. at 157.

Even where a document is considered “ ‘integral’ to the complaint, it must be clear on the record that no dispute exists regarding the authenticity or accuracy of the document.” DiFolco, 622 F.3d at 111 (quoting Faulkner v. Beer, 463 F.3d 130, 134 (2d Cir. 2006)). “It must also be clear that there exist no material disputed issues of fact regarding the relevance of the document.” Faulkner, 463 F.3d at 134. This principle is driven by a concern that a plaintiff may lack notice that the material will be considered to resolve factual matters. See Cortec Indus., Inc. v. Sum Holding L.P., 949 F.2d 42, 48 (2d Cir. 1991). Thus, if material is not integral to or otherwise incorporated in the complaint, it may not be considered unless the motion to dismiss is converted to a motion for summary judgment and all parties are “given a reasonable opportunity to present all the material that is pertinent to the motion.” Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(d).

In sum, when it is apparent— on the face of the complaint and documents properly incorporated therein — that claims are subject to arbitration, a district court may dismiss in favor of arbitration without the delay of discovery. See Guidotti v. Legal Helpers Debt Resolution, L.L.C., 716 F.3d 764, 774-76 (3d Cir. 2013). If, however, there is a dispute as to the relevance, authenticity, or accuracy of the documents relied upon, the district court may not dismiss the complaint with those materials in mind. Cf. Chambers, 282 F.3d at 154. If the district court is going to rely on the extrinsic materials, the proper course is to convert the motion to a motion for summary judgment dismissing the case in favor of arbitration, after providing notice to the parties and an opportunity to be heard.

2. Substantive Law

State law principles of contract formation govern the arbitrability question. See Specht, 306 F.3d at 27. The district court applied Washington law on the question of contract formation, and the parties do not challenge that decision on appeal. The determination of whether, parties have contractually bound themselves to arbitrate under state law is subject to de novo review. See id. at 26.

Washington courts have not specifically addressed the question of the reasonableness of notice of additional terms in online contracts, see Kwan v. Clearwire Corp., No. C09-1392JLR, 2012 WL 32380, at *8 (W.D. Wash. Jan. 3, 2012) (noting absence of reported cases), but it is clear that general contract principles under Washington law apply to agreements made online, see Spam Arrest, LLC v. Replacements, Ltd., No. C12-481RAJ, 2013 WL 4675919, at *8 n.10 (W.D. Wash. Aug. 29, 2013) (finding no authority to “suggest ] that Washington law applies differently to online contracts”). Indeed, as we have explained on multiple occasions, “new commerce on the Internet ... has not fun*232damentally changed the principles of contract.” Register.com, Inc. v. Verio, Inc., 356 F.3d 393, 403 (2d Cir. 2004); accord Schnabel, 697 F.3d at 124; see also Nguyen v. Barnes & Noble Inc., 763 F.3d 1171, 1175 (9th Cir. 2014).

Under Washington law, contract formation requires an objective manifestation of mutual assent. Keystone Land & Dev. Co. v. Xerox Corp., 152 Wash.2d 171, 177, 94 P.3d 945 (2004) (en banc) (“Washington follows the objective manifestation test for contracts.”); In re Marriage of Obaidi & Qayoum, 154 Wash.App. 609, 616, 226 P.3d 787 (2010) (“A valid contract requires a meeting of the minds on the essential terms.”); see also Wash. Rev. Code § 62A.2-204. “Whether parties manifested mutual assent is a question of fact.” Spam Arrest, 2013 WL 4675919, at *8 (citing Sea-Van Invs. Assocs. v. Hamilton, 125 Wash.2d 120, 881 P.2d 1035 (1994)). “The existence of mutual assent may be deduced from the circumstances....” Jacob’s Meadow Owners Ass’n v. Plateau 44 II, LLC, 139 Wash. App. 743, 765, 162 P.3d 1153 (2007). Where a party has signed a contract without reading it, she can argue that mutual assent was lacking if she was “deprived of the opportunity to read the contract” or if the contract was not “ ‘plain and unambiguous.’ ” Yakima Cty. (W. Valley) Fire Prot. Dist. No. 12 v. City of Yakima, 122 Wash.2d 371, 389, 858 P.2d 245 (1993) (quoting Skagit State Bank v. Rasmussen, 109 Wash.2d 377, 381-84, 745 P.2d 37 (1987)). “So long as a[n] [offeree] could have seen a reasonably conspicuous reference to the ... Agreement ... a jury could conclude that [she] manifested assent.” Spam Arrest, 2013 WL 4675919, at *8 (citing M.A. Mortenson Co. v. Timberline Software Corp., 140 Wash.2d 568, 998 P.2d 305 (2000) (en banc)).

Washington has also upheld the validity of shrinkwrap agreements, endorsing the view that “[njotice on the outside, terms on the inside, and a right to return the software for a refund if the terms are unacceptable ... may be a means of doing business valuable to buyers and sellers alike.” M.A. Mortenson, 140 Wash.2d at 582-83, 998 P.2d 305 (quoting ProCD, Inc. v. Zeidenberg, 86 F.3d 1447, 1451 (7th Cir. 1996)). The validity of shrinkwrap agreements assumes that buyers have notice of the existence of standard adhesion terms, even if they are not read or understood. See id. at 584, 998 P.2d 305 (enforcing terms of adhesion where text of terms were “set forth explicitly or referenced in numerous locations”); Hill v. Gateway 2000, Inc., 105 F.3d 1147, 1148 (7th Cir. 1997) (relying on fact that plaintiffs “concede^] noticing the statement of terms [on the box], but den[ied] reading it”); see also Specht, 306 F.3d at 33-34 (distinguishing shrinkwrap cases as instances where notice of existence of additional terms was provided).

Manifestation of assent to an online contract is not meaningfully different, and can be accomplished by “words or silence, action or inaction,” so long as the user “ ‘intends to engage in the conduct and knows or has reason to know that the other party may infer from his conduct that he assents.’ ” Schnabel, 697 F.3d at 120 (footnote omitted) (quoting Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 19(2) (1981)). As with paper contracts or shrinkwrap agreements, to be bound, an internet user need not actually read the terms and conditions or click on a hyperlink that makes them available as long as she has notice of their existence. See id. at 121 (“As a general principle, an offeree cannot actually assent to an offer unless the offeree knows of its existence.” (internal quotation marks omitted)); Specht, 306 F.3d at 29-30 *233(“[Clicking on a ... button does not communicate assent to contractual terms if the offer did not make clear to the consumer that clicking on the ... button would signify assent to those terms.”).

Under Washington law, a person has notice of a fact if she “[h]as actual knowledge of it.” Wash. Rev. Code § 62A.1 — 202(a)(1); see also Register.com, 356 F.3d at 402-03 (concluding that website user who manifested assent with actual knowledge of terms was bound by them). Where there is no actual notice of contract terms, “an offeree is still bound by the provision if he or she is on inquiry notice of the term and assents to it through the conduct that a reasonable person would understand to constitute assent.” Schnabel, 697 F.3d at 120; see also Wash. Rev. Code Ann. §§ 62A.l-202(a)(3), (d) (charging person with inquiry notice if she “has reason to know that it exists” “[f]rom all the facts and circumstances known to the person at the time in question” or has received notification of it from someone who took “such steps as may be reasonably required to inform the other person in ordinary course”).

One common way of alerting internet users to terms and conditions is via a “clickwrap” agreement, which typically requires users to click an “I agree” box after being presented with a list of terms or conditions of use. See Register.com, 356 F.3d at 4.02-03, 429. Clickwraps force users to “expressly and unambiguously manifest either assent or rejection prior to being given access to the product.” Id. at 429. In contrast, “browsewrap” agreements involve terms and conditions posted via hyperlink, commonly at the bottom of the screen, and do not request an express manifestation of assent. See Specht, 306 F.3d at 31-32 (describing what would later be termed “browsewrap”). In determining the validity of browsewrap agreements, courts often consider whether a website user has actual or constructive notice of the conditions. See id. at 32; Schnabel, 697 F.3d at 129 n.18 (noting that browsewrap provisions are generally enforced only if “the website user '... had actual or constructive knowledge of the site’s terms and conditions, and ... manifested assent to them” (quoting Cvent, Inc. v. Eventbrite, Inc., 739 F.Supp.2d 927, 937-38 (E.D. Va. 2010))); see also In re Zappos.com, Inc., Customer Data Sec. Breach Litig., 893 F.Supp.2d 1058, 1063-64 (D. Nev. 2012) (“[T]he determination of the validity of a browsewrap contract depends on whether the user has actual or constructive knowledge of a website’s terms and conditions.”).

Whether there was notice of the existence of additional contract terms presented on a webpage depends heavily on whether the design and content of that webpage rendered the existence of terms reasonably conspicuous. See Nguyen, 763 F.3d at 1177-78; Spam Arrest, 2013 WL 4675919, at *8. “Clarity and conspicuousness of arbitration terms are important in securing informed assent.” Specht, 306 F.3d at 30. Thus, when terms are linked in obscure sections of a webpage that users are unlikely to see, courts will refuse to find constructive notice. See id. at 30-32 (finding insufficient notice where only reference to conditions of use was at the bottom of screen via hyperlink and web-page did not indicate that “download now” button constituted agreement to terms and conditions); Hines v. Overstock.com, Inc., 668 F.Supp.2d 362, 367 (E.D.N.Y. 2009) (finding no notice where “website did not prompt [the user] to review the Terms and Conditions and ... the link to the Terms and Conditions was not prominently displayed so as to provide reasonable notice of the Terms and Conditions”); Zappos.com, 893 F.Supp.2d at 1064 (concluding user did not manifest assent to *234conditions of use that were “inconspicuous, buried in the middle to bottom of every ... webpage among many other links, and the website never directs a user to the Terms of Use”).

B. Application

We conclude that the district court erred in granting Amazon’s motion to dismiss. First, the district court erred in considering certain factual materials extrinsic to the complaint. Second, Nicosia has plausibly stated a claim, as we are not convinced at this stage that he is bound by the arbitration clause.

1. Consideration of Materials Extraneous to the Complaint

As an initial matter, we conclude that the district court correctly determined that the Order Page and 2012 Conditions of Use were an embodiment of the contract made between Nicosia and Amazon, and thus integral to the complaint. See Global Network, 458 F.3d at 157. Nicosia did not attach a copy of the Order Page to his complaint, but the complaint alleges injuries on the basis of the purchases made on Amazon, made possible only via clicking “Place your order” on the Order Page. See Add. B. Thus, the Order Page and the linked 2012 Conditions of Use were part of the contract incorporated into the complaint by reference. See Chambers, 282 F.3d at 153 n.4 (considering contract relied upon as integral to complaint, which was “replete with references to the contracts and requested] judicial interpretation of their terms”). Therefore the district court properly considered them.4

The district court also relied on additional extrinsic materials in dismissing the complaint. Specifically, the district court relied on Amazon’s assertion that Nicosia’s purchases were made using an account created in 2008 and that to have registered for an account in 2008 one must have checked a box on the Registration Page, acknowledging acceptance of the 2008 Conditions of Use. Based on those assertions, the district court concluded that Nicosia himself created the account in 2008 ánd personally assented to the 2008 Conditions of Use. This was error, as those facts were neither alleged in nor integral to the complaint. Most importantly, their authenticity and relevance were disputed below.

First, contrary to the district court’s assertion, Nicosia did not admit to or allege tha